INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC) QUANTITIES

Physics is a branch of science which deals with Are quantities that cannot be expressed in terms
the study of matter in relation to energy of other quantities

Matter is anything that occupies space and has The three basic quantities used in mechanics are;
mass mass, time and length

Energy is the ability to do work Other basic quantities are

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS  Temperature

 Electric current
1. Mechanics
 Amount of a substance
2. Heat
 Luminous intensity
3. Light
4. Waves
DERIVED QUANTITIES
5. Electricity
6. Magnetism Are quantities which can be got from
7. Modern physics fundamental quantities

PHYSICS EXAMINATION They include;

Physics has a code 535  Volume = 𝑙 × 𝑤 × ℎ

 area = 𝑙 × 𝑤
It has three papers 𝑚
 density =
𝑉
1. 535/1 paper one 𝑑
 speed =
𝑡
2. 535/2 paper two 𝐹
 pressure = 𝐴
3. 535/3 or 535/4 Physics practicals

MEASUREMENTS INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF

UNITS (𝑺. 𝑰 𝑼𝑵𝑰𝑻𝑺)
To measure is to find the value of a quantity
To distinguish one quantity measured from the
Measurement is a number that shows the size other, we attach units
(magnitude) of a quantity
The metric system of units which is agreed to be
Quantity that can be measured is called used internationally is the 𝑆. 𝐼 units
𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚
S.I units comes from French words Systeme
Physical quantities include; time length, mass, International (d'unites)
speed, volume, density, etc.

Physical quantities are divided into

1. Fundamental (basic) quantities

2. Derived quantities

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 For example LENGTH

Basic quantities Is the distance between two fixed points

Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit is 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆(𝒎)

Mass M kilogram kg Other units are

Time T seconds 𝑠  𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝑘𝑚)

 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝑐𝑚)
Length L metre 𝑚  𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝑚𝑚)
Temperature T kelvin K  𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑
 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 etc.
Electric I ampere A
current CONVERSION OF UNITS OF LENGTH

Amount of mole mol We use 𝐾 𝐻 𝐷 𝑚 𝑑 𝑐 𝑚

substance
. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Luminous candela cd
Examples
intensity
Convert the following

(a) 20𝑚 to 𝑐𝑚
Derived quantities (b) 120𝑘𝑚 to 𝑚
Quantity Symbol Formulae 𝑺. 𝑰 unit symbol (c) 5𝑘𝑚 to 𝑚𝑚
(d) 2𝑘𝑚 to 𝑐𝑚
Area A 𝑙×𝑤 metre 𝑚2 (e) 102𝑚 to 𝑘𝑚
squared (f) 500𝑚𝑚 to 𝑐𝑚

Volume V 𝑙×𝑤 metres 𝑚3 MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTH

×ℎ cubed
The following instruments are used in the
Density 𝜌 𝑚 kilogram 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 measurement of length
𝑙 × 𝑤 × ℎ per cubic
metre 1. Tape measure
 It measure length of greater than 1𝑚 e.g. 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Speed V 𝑑 metres per 𝑚𝑠 −2 of a wall, length of a football pitch
𝑡 second
2. Metre rule
Pressure P 𝐹 newton 𝑁𝑚−2
per metre  It measures small lengths less than 1𝑚 e.g.
𝐴
squared length of a book, length of a bicycle spoke etc.
 It has a length of 1𝑚 = 100𝑐
Work W 𝐹×𝑑 newton 𝑁𝑚
metre

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 DENSITY 4. An object of mass 500𝑔 has a volume of
200𝑐𝑚3. Find its density in;
Is the mass per unit volume
(a) 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (b) 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
5. Calculate the mass of air in the room of
𝑴
𝝆= dimensions 1000𝑐𝑚 𝑏𝑦 500𝑐𝑚 𝑏𝑦 200𝑐𝑚 if
𝑽
the density of air is 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
From
𝑀(𝑘𝑔) 6. A piece of mineral has a density of 0.6𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
𝜌=
𝑉(𝑚3 ) (a) What does this mean?
(b) If its mass is 6𝑔, find its volume
The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of density is
𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 ) Density of some substances
Other unit is Water 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 )
Mercury 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
−3 −3
Where 1𝑔𝑐𝑚 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚
Air 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
CONVERSION OF UNITS
Why do we study density
Convert the following
1. To test for purity of substances
(a) 5.4𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 to 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 2. To identify materials
(b) 43𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 to 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 3. To choose light gases for filling balloons
(c) 21000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 to 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 4. To choose the right materials for construction
(d) 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 to 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
DETERMINATION OF DENSITY
OF A LIQUID
 An empty measuring cylinder is weighed and its
mass 𝑀1 is noted
Examples  A liquid is poured in a measuring cylinder
 The measuring cylinder is weighed again and its
1. The density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . What does
mass 𝑀2 is noted
this mean?
 Mass of the liquid 𝑀 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1
 Volume, 𝑉 of the liquid in the measuring
2. An object of mass 1000𝑘𝑔 has a volume of
cylinder is noted
25𝑚3. Find its density in 𝑀
(a) 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3  Density of the liquid is calculated from 𝜌 = 𝑉
(b) 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3

3. A box with dimensions 4𝑚 𝑏𝑦 2𝑚 𝑏𝑦 1𝑚

weighs 48𝑘𝑔. Calculate its density

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 DETERMINATION OF DENSITY Examples
OF A REGULAR OBJECT
 The object is weighed using a beam balance and 1. A 40𝑔 of water of volume 60𝑐𝑚3 is mixed with
its mass, 𝑚 is noted alcohol of mass 80𝑔 having a volume of
 The dimensions of the object are measured 140𝑐𝑚3. Calculate the density of the mixture
 The volume, 𝑉 of the object is calculated using a
2. Two liquids 𝑃 and 𝑄 are mixed together. If 𝑃
formula
𝑚 has a density of 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and volume
 Density is obtained from 𝜌 = 𝑉 200𝑐𝑚3 while 𝑄 has a density of 400𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF AN and a volume of 800𝑐𝑚3. Calculate the density
IRREGULAR OBJECT of the mixture

 The object is weighed using a beam balance and 3. 4𝑐𝑚3 of milk has a mass of 5𝑔 and it is mixed
its mass, 𝑀 is noted with 6𝑐𝑚3 of water of mass 6𝑔. What is the
 A measuring cylinder is filled with water and its density of the mixture
volume, 𝑉1 is noted
 The object is tied on a thread 4. 4𝑔 of oil of density 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is mixed with 1𝑔
 The object is carefully lowered into the water of alcohol of density 1.2𝑔𝑐𝑚−3. Find the
and the new volume, 𝑉2 of the water is noted density of the mixture
 Volume of the object is obtained from
𝑉 = 𝑉2 −𝑉1 5. 𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒 by mixing 40𝑐𝑚3 of metal 𝑋
 Density of the object is got from 𝜌 =
𝑀 whose density is 2𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and another metal 𝑌
𝑉
of density 3𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 20𝑐𝑚3.
Examples Determine the density of the alloy

1. A measuring cylinder contains water up to a 6. 1800𝑐𝑚3 of fresh water of density 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

level of 100𝑐𝑚3. A piece of a stone of mass is mixed with 2200𝑐𝑚3 of sea water of density
50𝑔 is dropped into a measuring cylinder to 1025𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . calculate the density of the
350𝑐𝑚3. Calculate the mixture
(a) Volume of the stone
(b) Density of the stone in 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝑭𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹𝑺 𝑻𝑯𝑨𝑻 𝑨𝑭𝑭𝑬𝑪𝑻 𝑫𝑬𝑵𝑺𝑰𝑻𝒀
DENSITY OF A MIXTURE 1. Temperature
Density of a substance decreases with increase
If a liquid of mass, 𝑀1 and volume, 𝑉1 is mixed
in temperature
with a liquid of mass, 𝑀2 and volume, 𝑉2 Increase in temperature increases the volume of
Then a substance but the mass remains constant, this
decreases the density
Total mass = 𝑀1 +𝑀2
2. Pressure
Total volume = 𝑉1 +𝑉2 This affect the density of gases
𝑴𝟏 +𝑴𝟐 For a fixed mass of a gas, increase in pressure
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 = increases the density of the gas
𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 RELATIVE DENSITY, 𝑹. 𝑫

Is the ratio of mass of a substance to the mass of

an equal volume of water

(a) Find the magnitude of the resultant force

(b) Find the acceleration acting on the body

FRICTION FORCE

Is a force that opposes the relative motion of two

 Small known masses are slowly added to the
surfaces in contact
scale pan until the block just starts to slide
Friction acts in opposite direction to that of a  Total weight of the scale pan and added
force that causes motion masses is obtained
 The total weight is the static friction

LIMITING FRICTION

Is the maximum friction between two surfaces

SLIDING OR DYNAMIC
FRICTION (KINETIC FRICTION)

Is the friction that opposes relative motion

between two surfaces in contact in motion
TYPES OF FRICTION
It slows down motion
1. Static friction
2. Sliding or dynamic friction EXPERIMENT TO MEASURE DYNAMIC
3. Viscosity FRICTION
STATIC FRICTION

Is a friction which opposes motion of two

surfaces in contact at rest

It prevents motion

EXPERIMENT TO MEASURE
STATIC FRICTION

 Small known masses are slowly added to the

scale pan and each time the block is given a
small push until the block moves with uniform
speed

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 𝑻𝑬𝑴𝑷𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑼𝑹𝑬 𝑺𝑪𝑨𝑳𝑬 DETERMINING LOWER FIXED POINT

Is one which can measure the degree of hotness

of a substance.

They include

1. Celsius scale
2. Kelvin scale
CELSIUS SCALE
 It records temperature in ℃
 It has the ice point at 0℃ and the steam point at
100℃
 The distance between 0℃ and 100℃ is divided
into 100 small divisions called degrees  The bulb is surrounded by pure melting ice
KELVIN SCALE  The mercury thread falls readily and then
 It records temperature in 𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛(𝐾) becomes constant
 𝑻(𝑲) = 𝒕(𝟎 𝑪) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑  The top of the mercury thread is marked as
lower fixed point
KELVIN SCALE AND CELSIUS
SCALE UPPER FIXED POINT
Is the temperature of steam from boiling water at
𝐼00℃ standard atmospheric pressure
373𝐾
 It is 100℃
 Steam is used because water may be containing
impurities that may affect the boiling point of
0℃
water

DETERMINING UPPER FIXED POINT

0𝐾 −273℃

THE FIXED TEMPERATURE POINTS

There are two fixed points namely

1. Lower fixed point

2. Upper fixed point

LOWER FIXED POINT (ICE POINT)

 Is the temperature of pure melting ice at

standard atmospheric pressure
 It is 0℃
 The ice must be pure, since presence of
impurities lower the melting point

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 The thermometer is kept in the steam above dipped in a solution, find the temperature of
boiling water the solution
 The mercury thread rise up steadily and then 4. The length of a mercury thread at a lower fixed
becomes constant point and the upper fixed point are 2𝑐𝑚 and
 The top of the mercury thread is marked as the 8𝑐𝑚 respectively for a certain liquid 𝑋. Given
upper fixed point that the length of the mercury thread at
unknown temperature, 𝑡 is 6𝑐𝑚, determine the
TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE USING value of 𝑡
UN-CALIBRATED THERMOMETER
THE THERMOMETER

Is an instrument used to measure temperature

TYPES OF THERMOMETER

1. Liquid in glass thermometer

2. Electrical resistance thermometer
3. Constant volume gas thermometer
4. Thermoelectric thermometer

 The fixed points are obtained THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY

 The distance, 𝑦 between the upper fixed point
and the lower fixed point (fundamental Is the one which varies continuously with
interval) is obtained temperature and constant at constant temperature
 The distance, 𝑥 between the lower fixed point
For example
and the unknown temperature is obtained
 Unknown temperature, 𝑡 is obtained from 1. Length of a liquid column
𝒙 2. The electrical resistance of a metal
𝒕 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝒚 3. Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas
4. Thermoelectric 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓
Examples
5. Volume of a fixed mass of a gas
1. The ice point and steam point are found to be
100𝑚𝑚 apart on an un-graduated
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
thermometer. The distance above the 𝐿. 𝐹. 𝑃 is
THAT CHANGES WITH TEMPERATURE
50𝑚𝑚.what is the temperature corresponding
to this distance in ℃ 1. Length of rod
2. The ice point and steam point are found to be 2. Volume of a liquid
192𝑚𝑚 apart on un-graduated thermometer. 3. Volume of a gas at constant pressure
What is the temperature recorded in ℃ when 4. Color of a substance
the length of the mercury thread is 67.2𝑚𝑚 5. State of matter
above the ice point 6. Pressure of a gas at constant volume
3. The fundamental interval on a thermometer is 7. Electrical resistance
20𝑐𝑚. If the mercury level falls to 12𝑐𝑚
below the ice point when the thermometer is THERMOMETRIC LIQUIDS

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Is a liquid that can be used in a thermometer

The commonly used liquids are DOMESTIC HOT WATER SUPPLY

SYSTEM

 Cold dense air (smoke) flows down through

chimney 𝐴
 It circulates inside and passes over the burning
candle where it is heated
 The air molecules expand, become less dense
and rises up through chimney 𝐵
 Cold air comes down to replace the warm rising
air forming convectional current

APPLICATION OF CONVECTION
1. Liquids  Cold water runs down to the bottom of the hot
 Domestic hot water supply system water tank and continues to the boiler
 Water is heated, becomes less dense and it rises
2. Gases  The cold water displaces the hot water in the
 Chimneys in kitchen and factories boiler and it rises to the hot water tank and
 Ventilation pipes in 𝑉𝐼𝑃 latrines supplied to the water taps
 Ventilations in houses  The expansion pipe allows steam and dissolved
 Land and sea breeze air to escape from the hot water

SEA BREEZE

This occurs during day time

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 During day time, land heats up readily to higher
temperature than the sea
 Penumbra is a region of a shadow which
receives some light
ECLIPSE

Is an obstruction of the light from the sun by

either the moon or earth LUNAR ECLIPSE (ELIPSE OF THE
MOON)
It occurs when the sun, moon and the earth are
in a straight line This is formed when light from the sun reaching
the moon is obstructed by the earth
ECLIPSE OF THE SUN (SOLAR ECLIPSE)
It occurs at night, when the earth is between the
This is formed when light reaching the earth sun and moon
from the sun is obstructed by the moon

It occurs during day time, when the moon is

between the sun and the earth

 In region 𝑀2 , the moon receives total darkness

from the earth
 Region 𝒂 receives total darkness (umbra), the  In region 𝑀1 , the moon receives partial
sun is not visible darkness, it receives some light but not as much
 Regions 𝒃 and 𝒅 has partial darkness as regions 𝑀0
(penumbra). It receives some light but not as THE PINHOLE CAMERA
region 𝒂 and 𝒆
It is made of a light tight box with a small hole
ANNULAR ECLIPSE in a metal plate at one end and a screen of
tracing paper at the other end
It occurs when the moon is far away from the
earth It works on the principle that light travels in a
straight line
This occurs when the shadow of the moon fails
to reach the earth A small hole faces the object and a real,
diminished and inverted image is formed on the
The sun appears as a thin bright ring around a screen
black circle (an annulus)

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 REFLECTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE
SURFACES

Image formation by a plane mirror

Is a reflection where a parallel beam of

incidence is reflected parallel

It occurs on highly smooth surfaces like plane

mirrors, calm water surface etc.
PROPERTIES OF IMAGE FORMED BY A
PLANE MIRROR

1. The image has the same size as the object

2. The image distance is equal to object distance.
(same distance behind the mirror as the object
is in-front)
3. The image is laterally inverted (inverted
sideways)
1. DIFFUSE (IRREGULAR) REFLECTION 4. The image is virtual
5. It is upright (erect)
Is a reflection where a parallel beam of
incidence is reflected in different direction A virtual image is the image formed by
(scattered) apparent intersection of light rays. It cannot be
formed on the screen
It occurs on rough surfaces for examples; rough
walls A real image is the image formed by actual
intersection of light rays. It is formed on the
screen

IMAGES FORMED BY TWO MIRRORS

AT AN ANGLE

When two mirrors are placed at an angle 𝑥

between them, the number of the images formed

𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝒏=( )−𝟏
𝒙

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 The toothed wheels engage each other to 2. A driving force of 200𝑁 drives a wheel which
produce a turning force overcomes a force of 350𝑁. Given that the
driven wheel and driving wheel have 24 and 8
teeth respectively. Calculate the efficiency of
the system
WHEEL AND AXLE

This is made of a large wheel attached to a pole

called an axle

The effort is applied to the wheel and the load is

 The load and the effort are applied to the shaft raised by a string attached to the axle
connected to the gear wheels
 To use little effort to carry a heavy load
(ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑀. 𝐴), the wheel must turn to a low
speed. The driving wheel must be smaller than
driven wheel
 To use much effort to carry a small load
(𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑀. 𝐴), the wheel must turn to a high speed.
The driving wheel must be bigger than driven
For one complete turn, the load moves through a
wheel
distance equal to circumference of the axle and
 The number of rotations depends on the ratio of
the effort moves a distance equal to the
number of teeth and radii of the wheels
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 circumference of the wheel
 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 =
Examples 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒

1. In a gear system, the number of teeth on the 2𝜋𝑅

𝑉. 𝑅 =
driving wheel is 10 and the teeth on the driven 2𝜋𝑟

wheel are 40. If the system is able to lift a load 𝑹

𝑽. 𝑹 =
of 300𝑁 with an effort of 100𝑁, calculate the; 𝒓
(i) Efficiency
Examples
(ii) Distance moved by the effort if the distance
moved by the load is 5𝑚 1. The figure below shows a wheel and axle system

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

  The tension in each string is equal to effort 2. Calculate the efficiency of a pulley system of
 If there is no friction force and both the lower 𝑉. 𝑅 = 6 if a force of 1000𝑁 is required to raise
block and the rope have no weight a load of 4500𝑁
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 3. A block and tackle pulley system is used to raise
= 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 a load of 400𝑁 steadily through a height of
 In reality, the movable block and the rope have 15𝑚. If the work done against friction and
weight and there is friction force. These act useless load is 1000𝐽, calculate the;
down ward and become part of the load (i) Work input
(𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) (ii) Efficiency of the machine
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒘𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 + 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
VARIATION OF 𝑴. 𝑨 WITH THE LOAD
Examples

1. Below is a pulley system of mass 0.5𝑘𝑔 and

there is a friction of 5𝑁

 A load of known weight is placed on the load

pan
 Known weights are slowly added on the effort
pan until the load just rises steadily
 The experiment is repeated using different loads
Calculate
 The results are tabulated including values of
(i) Effort required to lift the load 𝑀. 𝐴
(ii) 𝑀. 𝐴  A graph of 𝑀. 𝐴 against 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 is plotted and it
(iii) 𝑉. 𝑅 gives a shape below
(iv) Efficiency of the machine
(a) Give the reasons why the efficiency above is
less than 100%
(b) Suggest ways of increasing that efficiency
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 MAGNETISM POLES OF A MAGNET

Is a form of energy found in magnets The ends of a magnet are called poles

Magnet Every magnet has a north (N) and south (S) pole

A magnet is a material which can attract When a magnet is freely suspended on a string,
magnetic materials e.g. iron, steel, Nickel etc. it comes to rest with its north pole facing the
geographical north and its south pole pointing
It always points in north and south directions if the geographical south
it is freely suspended.
A pole is a point (part) of a magnet where the
MAGNETIC AND NON MAGNETIC forces of attraction are strongest
MATERIALS
LAWS OF MAGNETISM
Magnetic materials are materials or substances
that can be attracted by magnet e.g. iron, steel, Like poles repel each other and unlike poles
Nickel, cobalt attract each other

Non- magnetic materials are materials that EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAW OF
cannot be attracted by a magnet e.g. wood, MAGNETISM
copper, rubber
A magnet of known poles is freely suspended
FERROMAGNETIC AND using a string
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
When it is at rest, a N-pole of another magnet is
Ferromagnetic materials are materials that are put towards the N-pole of a suspended magnet,
strongly attracted by the magnet. e.g. steel and the magnet swings away
iron, Cobalt, Nickel
This shows that N-pole repels N-pole
Paramagnetic materials are materials that are
slightly attracted by a magnet. e.g. aluminum, A S-pole is also put towards the N-pole of a
platinum, magnesium, lithium etc. suspended magnet, the N-pole is attracted

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS This shows that N-pole attracts S-pole

1. Magnets possess two poles North pole and This verifies the laws of magnetism that like
South Pole pole repel and unlike poles attract each other
2. Unlike poles of magnet attract while like poles
POLARITY OF A MAGNET
repel
3. When freely suspended, a magnet rests in North- Is to the nature of the poles of a magnet either
South direction 𝑁 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 or 𝑆 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
4. Magnetic forces of attraction and repulsion are
greatest at the poles

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 DETERMINATION OF THE POLARITY At the end, the free poles of the tiny magnets
OF A MAGNET (IDENTIFYING THE repel each other and spread
POLES OF A MAGNET)

In un-magnetized state, the dipoles point in all

directions. The 𝑁 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 of one neutralizes the
𝑆 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 of the other

A magnet with known poles is freely suspended

The poles of the test magnet are brought near the

poles of the suspended magnet MAGNETISATION OF A
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL
If repulsion occurs, the test poles are similar to
that of a suspended magnet Ways in which a materials can be magnetized
include
If attraction occurs, the test poles are opposite to
that of the suspended magnet 1. Electrical method
2. Stroke method
NOTE;
3. Induction method.
Repulsion is the only sure test for the polarity of
a magnet since attraction may be for the piece of ELECTRICAL METHOD
a magnetic material
This is the best method of making a permanent
MAGNETISATION magnet

Is a process of making a magnet

It is a process of making a magnet material

magnetized

THEORY OF MAGNETISM

(DOMAIN THEORY)
A magnetic material (bar) is placed inside a
This states that “a magnet is made up of very cylindrical coil having many turns (solenoid)
tiny magnets with their north poles pointing in
The current is switched on for a short time and
the same direction”
then off
These tiny magnets are called dipoles
When the bar is removed, it will be magnetized
In a magnetized state, the dipoles face the same
direction in groups called domains

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 MAGNETIC SATURATION North Pole becomes the South Pole. Since they
are unlike poles they attract each other.
Is the limit beyond which the strength of a
magnet cannot be increased DE-MAGNETIZATION OF A MAGNET.

INDUCTION METHOD Is a process by which magnetism of a magnet is

destroyed

This is the method by which the magnetism of a

magnet is weakened and finally destroyed.

METHODS OF DE-MAGNETISING A
MAGNET

1. By hammering or hitting; hammering the

magnet while lying in the 𝐸 − 𝑊 direction
destroys its molecular arrangement.
Iron nail is placed in contact with a permanent 2. By heating; the magnet is heated strongly while
magnet for some time. facing in the 𝐸 − 𝑊 direction
3. By using alternating current.
The magnetic material (iron nail) acquires
temporary magnetism and could be seen
attracting other iron nails or small pieces of
razorblades.

The part of the magnetic material in contact

with the pole of the magnet is induced with
opposite poles. The magnet is placed in a solenoid connected to
alternating current (𝑎. 𝑐) facing in the 𝐸 − 𝑊
Question
direction
Figure below shows two iron nails picked up by
The magnet is removed to a long distance from
a magnet.
the solenoid

N.B

During demagnetization by heating or

hammering, the atoms of the magnet vibrate
vigorously and this disturbs the arrangement of
the tiny particles

Question

Why are the nails attracted by the magnet? Explain why increase in temperature destroys
the magnetism of a magnet?
The North pole of the magnet induces opposite
poles on the nails such that the end close to the

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

When a substance is heated, molecules vibrate EXPERIMENT TO DISTINGISH
with greater energy, these increased vibrations BETWEEN HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC
destroy alignment of tiny magnets in the domain MATERIALS.
and the magnetism is decreased.

BREAKING A MAGNET

If a magnet is broken into smaller pieces, each

piece is a magnet with a 𝑁 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 and a 𝑆 −
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒

Therefore the North Pole and the South pole of a

magnet cannot be separated instead more
magnets are formed with reduced strength

Two similar un-magnetized pieces of iron and

steel are placed side by side in contact with the
pole of a magnet

They become magnetized by induction

The ends are dipped into the iron fillings

SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC
More iron fillings cling on the iron than on steel,
MATERIALS
indicating that iron is easily magnetized than
Soft magnetic materials are substances that can steel
easily be magnetized and also lose their
magnetism easily. e.g. iron The strips are removed from the magnet and
held firmly
The magnetism induced is temporary and the
magnets formed are temporary Few fillings fall from steel while practically all
fall from the iron, indicating that steel retain its
They are used in, magnetism while iron loses its magnetism easily
- Electric bells
- Transformer cores STORING MAGNETS
- Magnetic lens relays
- Magnetic separators Magnetic keepers are soft iron bars used to keep
magnets from losing their magnetism
Hard magnetic materials are substances that
are not magnetized easily but take long to lose Magnets are laid side by side with opposite
their magnetism e.g. steel. poles. The magnet keepers are placed at the
poles
They are used in dynamos, loud speakers etc.

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 EXPLANATION USING IRON FILINGS

How magnetic keepers are used to store magnets A paper is put over a bar magnet on a bench and
iron filings are sprinkled lightly over the paper
The keepers become induced with magnetism.
The opposite poles produced become neutralized The paper is touched gently, the iron filings line
with the poles of the magnets so that magnetic up into a magnetic field pattern
dipoles in the domains are kept aligned in one
direction or in closed loop. Note

MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERNS Each iron filling magnetizes by induction and

lines up in the direction of the field
Magnetic field
Disadvantages
Is the space or region around the magnet where
the magnetic force is felt (experienced) 1. It does not show the direction of the field
2. It is not good for weak magnets
A magnetic field is represented by lines of
magnetic force called magnetic flux USING A PLOTTING COMPASS.

Properties of magnetic field lines

1. They run from the north to south pole

2. They are in a state of tension
3. They repel each other side ways
4. They don’t cross each other

The number of magnetic field lines per unit area

is called magnetic flux density A magnet is placed on a flat surface and then a
piece of paper is placed on top of the magnet.
The strength of the magnetic force depends on
the magnetic flux density A plotting compass is placed near one pole of
the magnet
In a magnetic field, there is a region where
magnetic flux density is zero, this is a neutral The position of the North Pole of the compass
point needle using a pencil dot is noted and marked.
A neutral point is a region in a magnetic field The compass needle is moved onto the dot
where magnetic force is zero marked on the paper and a second dot is made.
The process is continued until the south pole of
Field patterns can be mapped using 2 methods
the magnet is reached.
i) Using iron filings The dots are joined to give a line of force and
ii) Using a plotting compass or needle. show the direction of the force using an arrow.

Advantages of using a plotting compass

1. It is good for weak magnets

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 ENERGY Is the energy from fire sources

Is the ability to do work 4. Nuclear energy

Is the energy created by nuclear reactions
OR

Is the capacity to do work 5. Electric energy

Is the energy due to the flow of charges
The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of energy is 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆(𝑱)
6. Light energy
It is a scalar quantity
Is the energy that enables us to see
SOURCES OF ENERGY
7. Sound energy
1. Renewable sources Is the energy that enables us to hear

Are sources that can be re-used

8. Mechanical energy
They can never get exhausted (used up) Is the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy
For example
KINETIC ENERGY
1. Solar energy (sun)
2. Wind Is the energy possessed by a body by virtue
3. Running water (reason) of its motion
4. Geothermal
𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
2. Non-renewable sources 𝟐

Are sources that cannot be re-used Where 𝑚 =mass in 𝑘𝑔

They can be exhausted 𝑣 = Velocity (speed) in 𝑚𝑠 −1

For example POTENTIAL ENERGY

1. Fuel like petrol Is the energy possessed by a body by virtue

2. Fossil (reason) of its position or state or condition
3. Nuclear energy
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Chemical energy Where
Is energy obtained as a result of chemical
reactions 𝒎 = mass of the body in 𝒌𝒈
It is the energy stored in food and fuel
𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 (acceleration due to gravity)
2. Radiant energy 𝒉 = Vertical height in 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔
Is the energy from the sun

3. Heat energy

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 2. A ball of mass 500𝑔 is dropped from a high
wall and it strikes the ground with a velocity
10𝑚𝑠 −1
(a) What is the 𝐾. 𝐸 of the ball as it is just
about to strike the ground
(b) What was its 𝑃. 𝐸 before it was dropped
(c) From what height was the ball dropped

3. A 200𝑔 ball falls from a height of 0.5𝑚.

calculate its 𝐾. 𝐸 just before hitting the ground

4. A block of mass 2𝑘𝑔 falls freely from rest

POSITION ENERGY through a distance of 3𝑚. Find the
(a) 𝐾. 𝐸 of the block before it hits the ground
𝑨 𝐾. 𝐸 = 0, 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 (b) 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 with which the body hits the ground

𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
POWER
𝑩 𝑃. 𝐸 changes to 𝐾. 𝐸
Is the rate of transfer of energy
𝑀. 𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝐸𝐵 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝐵 OR

𝑪 All 𝑃. 𝐸 changes to 𝐾. 𝐸 Is the rate of doing work

𝐾. 𝐸 is maximum, 𝑃. 𝐸 = 0 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
1 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
It is a scalar quantity
𝑫 The ball is at height, ℎ
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘(𝐽)
All 𝐾. 𝐸𝑐 changes to 𝑃. 𝐸𝐷 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠)
𝑃. 𝐸 is maximum
The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of power is 𝑱𝒔−𝟏
Examples (𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅)

1. A pendulum bob of mass, 𝑚 = 0.1𝑘𝑔 is raised But 1𝐽𝑠 −1 = 1𝑊(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)

to a height of 0.4 above its lowest point. It is
Therefore the 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of power is 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕(𝑾)
then released, calculate
(a) 𝑃. 𝐸 at this height A 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 is the rate of transfer of energy of
(b) K.E at its lowest height 1𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
(c) The maximum velocity
Larger units are

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 The smoke particles are seen as bright specks Diffusion is extremely slow in solids, average in
moving in a continuous random motion liquids and very fast in gases
Conclusion
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF
 This demonstrates Brownian motion
DIFFUSION
Explanation
 The random motion of the smoke particles is due 1. Temperature
to collision between smoke particles and The rate of diffusion increases with increase in
invisible air molecules which are in a state of temperature and decreases with decrease in
constant random motion temperature

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON 2. Molecular mass

BROWNIAN MOTION Light molecules diffuse faster than heavy
molecules
When the temperature of the smoke cell is
increased, the particles are seen to move faster
3. Size of particles
An increase in temperature increases the kinetic Small particles diffuse faster than larger
energy of the molecules hence the speed of the molecules
molecules also increases
4. Pressure
When the temperature of the smoke cell is The rate of diffusion of a gas increases with an
reduced by placing it on a block of ice, the increase in pressure
smoke particles are seen to move slowly
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW
Decrease in temperature reduces the kinetic
DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS
energy of the molecules thus reducing the speed
of the molecules

USING POLLEN GRAINS TO

DEMONSTRATE BROWNIAN MOTION

 Pollen grains are introduced in a container with

water and viewed under a microscope
 The pollen grains are seen moving a continuous
 A crystal of potassium permanganate is placed at
random motion
the bottom of a beaker containing water
Explanation
 The crystal dissolves and spreads throughout
 The continuous random motion is due to the
forming a purple solution
collision of pollen grains with water molecules
 The spreading of a purple solution demonstrates
that are in a constant random motion
diffusion
DIFFUSION

Is the spreading of molecules of matter from a

region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 APPLICATION OF CAPILLARITY

1. Absorption of water by a towel

2. The action of a blotting paper
3. Rise of oil (paraffin) in a lamp wick
4. Rise of water and mineral salts in plants

DISADVATAGES OF
CAPILLARITY  A clean beaker is filled with clean water
1. Absorption of water by building makes walls
 A blotting paper is placed on the water surface
weak and they collapse
 A pin slightly greased is gently placed on the
blotting paper
SOLUTION
 After sometime, the blotting paper sinks and
1. A damp proof course
the needle remains floating due to surface
(𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏) prevents
tension
capillarity from the ground
METHOD 2
SURFACE TENSION

Is a force on a liquid surface that causes it to

behave as if it is covered with an elastic skin

EFFECTS OF SURFACE TENSION

1. A steel needle or pin can float on water surface

2. Some insects can walk on water surface
3. Water drops from a tap form spherical droplets
 A thread is tied to form a loop across a wire
frame
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE  The frame is first dipped into soapy water so that
TENSION a thin film stretches across the wire frame
 The film inside a thread is broken
1. Temperature  The tread is pulled into a circle due to surface
Increase in temperature reduces surface tension tension

2. Impurities CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Addition of impurities like soap solution
weakens surface tension Is the point through which the total weight of a
body acts
EXPERIMENT TO The 𝐶. 𝑂. 𝐺 coincides with centre of mass
DEMONSTRATE SURFACE
TENSION Centre of mass is a point through which the
total mass of a body concentrate
METHOD 1
For regular bodies, their centre of gravity is
exactly in their centres
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
For example

1. Square

2. Rectangle
 Three holes 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are made at spaced
intervals around the edge of the lamina
 The lamina is suspended through hole 𝐴 on a
nail attached on the retort stand so that it
swings freely
3. Circle  The plumbline is suspended on the nail
 The vertical line through hole 𝐴 is drawn
using a pencil
 The procedures are repeated using hole 𝐵 and
line drawn
 The point of intersection of the lines is the
centre of gravity
4. Uniform metre rule Research;
Describe an experiment to determine 𝐶. 𝑂. 𝐺 of
an irregular lamina using balancing method

STABILITY OF A BODY

The stability of a body depends on two factors

1. Position of the centre of gravity

2. Size of the base area

How to increase the stability of a body

DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF
1. Increasing the base area
GRAVITY
2. Lower the centre of gravity by making the base
Using a plumbine heavier
EQUILIBRIUM
A plumbline is a string with a weight attached to
it Is the state of balance of a body

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 OR
The resultant moment about any given point
must be zero

More examples

1. Find the reactions 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 , if the rod is in

 A metre rule is balanced horizontally on a knife
equilibrium
edge
 The balancing point 𝐺 is noted
 A known mass 𝑚2 and the unknown mass 𝑚1
are suspended on either sides of the metre rule
 The distances 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 are adjusted until the
metre rule balances again
 The distances 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 are noted
 Using the principle of moments
𝑚1 × 𝑑1 = 𝑚2 × 𝑑2
2. Calculate the forces 𝑃 and 𝑄 if the beam is 𝑚2 × 𝑑2
balancing 𝑚1 =
𝑑1

DETERMINATION OF MASS OF A
UNIFORM METRE RULE USING
THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF

MOMENTS

1. Action of a beam balance  A metre rule is balanced horizontally on a knife

2. Action of a sea saw edge
3. Determination of mass of a uniform beam  The balancing point, 𝐺 is noted
4. Determination of mass of an object  A known mass 𝑚1 is suspended on one side of
5. Determination of relative density of a solid the metre rule
 The position of the knife edge is adjusted until
the metre rule balances again
 The distances 𝑑1 and 𝑑 are noted
 Using the principle of moments
𝑚1 × 𝑑1
DETERMINATION OF MASS OF AN 𝑚=
𝑑
OBJECT USING THE PRINCIPLE OF
MOMENTS Examples

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 DISADVANTAGES OF CONVEX MIRROR PRESSURE
1. It forms diminished images Is the force acting normally on an area of 1𝑚2
2. It gives a false impression of the distance of an
object. This makes it difficult for the driver to 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
judge the distance while reversing the car 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

DETERMINING THE FOCAL LENGTH It is a scalar quantity

OF A CONCAVE MIRROR The 𝑺. 𝑰 unit
1. Focusing a distant object (approximate 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
method) 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚2 )

= 𝑁𝑚−2

𝑏𝑢𝑡 1𝑁𝑚−2 = 1 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙

Therefore the 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of pressure is

𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍(𝑷𝒂) OR
𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝑵𝒎−𝟐 )

A 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍 is the pressure exerted when a force

 The position of the mirror is adjusted until a clear of 1𝑁 acts normally on an area of 1𝑚2
sharp image of a distant object is focused on the
Other units of pressure
mirror
 The distance, 𝑓 between the mirror and the screen  Atmosphere (𝑎𝑡𝑚)
is measured  Millimeter of mercury (𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔)
 This is the focal length of the mirror
2. Using the illuminated object Examples

1. A block of metal produces a pressure of

1000 𝑁𝑚−2 when resting on a flat surface of
area 0.5𝑚2 . calculate the force exerted on the
surface

2. A car piston exerts a force of 200𝑁 on a cross

sectional area of 40𝑐𝑚2. Find the pressure
exerted by the piston
 The position of the mirror is adjusted until a
clear image of the wire gauze is formed on the
3. A man of mass 48𝑘𝑔 stands upright on a floor.
screen
If the area of contact of his shoe and the floor is
 The distance, 𝑟 between the mirror and the
420𝑐𝑚2. Find the pressure exerted on the floor
screen is measured
by the man
 The focal length of the mirror is obtained from
𝑟
𝑓=2

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 PRESSURE IN SOLIDS 3. A rectangular block of mass 48𝑘𝑔 measures
4𝑚 × 3𝑚 × 2𝑚, what is the least pressure it can
Pressure in solids depends on exert on a given surface
1. Weight of the solid 4. A rectangular block of metal weighs 3𝑁
2. Area of contact measures (2 × 3 × 4)𝑐𝑚3 . What is the greatest
pressure it can exert on a horizontal surface
Pressure increases when the area of contact is
reduced and it reduces when the area of contact 5. A rectangular block of metal 2𝑐𝑚 by 10𝑐𝑚 by
increases 10𝑐𝑚 weighs 5𝑘𝑔. Calcultate the maximum
and minimum pressure
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM PRESSURE
EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING
Pressure increases when the area of contact
OBSERVATIONS
decreases and pressure decreases when the area
of contact increases 1. A hippotamus is able to walk on a muddy
ground unlike a goat
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = A hippo has a large feet therefore it exerts less
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 pressure while a goat has small feet and it
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 exerts a greater pressure thus sinking in mud
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛
2. High heeled shoes of ladies dig the ground
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 They have pointed soles and therefore exert a
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 very high pressure on the ground
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3. When the same force is applied at the end of
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥
the needle and the nail, one tends to feel more
Examples pain from the needle than the nail
The needle has a very small area of contact and
1. A box measures 5𝑚 by 1𝑚 by 2𝑚 and has a therefore exerts a large pressure while a nail
weight of 60𝑁, while resting on the horizontal has a large area of contact and therefore exerts
surface, calculate the maximum and minimum a less pressure
pressure it exerts.
Maximum area = biggest × bigger 4. A wooden bed can easily be broken when
(biggest area) length length standing on it than when lying on it
When standing, feet have a small area of
Minimum area = smallest × smaller contact and therefore exert a high pressure
(smallest area) length length while lying, the area of contact is large and
thus a small pressure is exerted
2. The dimensions of a cuboid are 5𝑐𝑚 × 10𝑐𝑚 ×
20𝑐𝑚 and the mass of the cuboid is 6𝑘𝑔. 5. A sharp knife cuts well than a blunt one
Calculate the maximum and minimum pressure A sharp knife has a small area of the cutting
the cuboid exerts on the ground edge thus exerting a high pressure while a
blunt knife has a larger area of the cutting edge
hence exerting a small pressure

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure is measured using a

barometer

HOW A SIMPLE BAROMETER IS MADE

IN THE LABORATORY
Other types of barometer are

1. Fortin barometer
2. Aneroid barometer

Examples

1. Determine the atmospheric pressure in;

(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
 A 1𝑚 long thick walled tube is filled with (ii) 𝑃𝑎
mercury
 The tube is inverted several times with the finger
at the other end (This expels air bubbles in the
mercury).
 After inverting several times, the tube is refilled
with mercury.
 With a finger on the open end, the filled tube is
inverted into a bowl of mercury.
 The finger is removed;
 The mercury falls up to a height ℎ = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
 The height ℎ is the atmospheric pressure 2. Express;
Atmospheric pressure = barometric height × (i) 900𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 in 𝑁𝑚−2
density of mercury × acceleration due to gravity (ii) 540𝑛𝑛𝐻𝑔 in 𝑃𝑎

𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒉 × 𝝆 × 𝒈

NOTE

 The torricellian vacuum is not a real vacuum

because it contains some mercury vapour
 The vertical height, ℎ of the mercury column
remains the same even if the tube is tilted to an
angle as shown below

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Calculating the height of the reading of the 3. Drinking straw
mercury barometer at high altitude: 4. Lift pump
5. Force pump
𝒉𝒂 𝝆𝒂 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈 − 𝒉𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈 6. Rubber sucker

Where THE DRINKING STRAW

𝒉𝒂 = Height of the mountain

𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒎 = Atmospheric pressure at the bottom of

the mountain

𝒉𝒎 = Mercury column barometer at top of the

mountain

Examples
 When drinking using a straw, air is sucked and
1. A mercury barometer reads a pressure of this leaves a partial vacuum in the straw.
75𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the bottom of a mountain and  The atmospheric pressure forces the liquid to
73.5𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the top. If the density of mercury rise through the straw
is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and that of air is 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 ,
calculate the height of the mountain THE SIPHON

2. A barometer is taken to the top of a mountain

440𝑐𝑚 high. If the atmospheric pressure is
76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at sea level, the average density of air
= 1.2𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Calculate the barometer reading

3. The pressure difference between the top and the

bottom of a mountain is 1.0 × 104 𝑁𝑚−2 . If the
density of air is 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Find the height of
the mountain. [Ans: 800m]

4. A barometer reads 780mmHg at the foot of the

mountain which is 450m high. What is the  It is used to empty tanks
barometer reading at the top of the  The end 𝐴 must be below the liquid level in the
mountain.(Density of air is 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . and tank
that of mercury is13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3). [Ans:  The air inside the tube is sucked out and the tube
738.9mmHg] is filled with the liquid
 Sucking reduces the pressure inside the tube and
APPLICATIONS OF atmospheric pressure forces the liquid into the
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE tube and it flows out continuously
1. Siphon
2. Bicycle pump

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Examples STRETCHING A WIRE

1. A force of 50𝑁 causes an extension of 0.25𝑚. When weights are added on a thin long wire, the
calculate the spring constant wire extends. The extension is proportional to
2. A spring is stretched from 80𝑐𝑚 to 82𝑐𝑚 by a the applied force
weight of 4.4𝑁. calculate
(i) Extension produced Since the wire is elastic, if the weights are
removed, the wire returns to the original length
(ii) Force constant 𝑘 of the spring
3. A spring stretches by 6𝑐𝑚 when supporting a If we continue to add more masses, at a certain
load of 15𝑁. By how much would it stretch point, the wire will not return to exact original
when supporting a load of 5𝑘𝑔 position (plastic deformation)
4. A force of 40𝑁 causes an extension of 5𝑐𝑚 on a
spring. Find the force that will cause an A graph of force (weight) against extension
extension of 8𝑐𝑚 takes the shape below

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY HOOKE’S

LAW

 The initial position, 𝑃0 of the pointer is noted

 A known weight 𝑊 is suspended from the free
end of the spring
 The new position 𝑃1 of the pointer is noted REGIONS OF THE GRAPH
 The extension 𝑒 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑜 is calculated Region 𝑶𝑨
 The procedures are repeated for increasing
values of 𝑊  This is the Hooke’s law region
 The results are tabulated  The force increases proportionally with
 A graph of 𝑊 against 𝑒 is plotted extension
 A straight line through the origin is obtained  Point 𝐴 is called the proportionality limit
 This means that extension is directly  Proportionality limit is the maximum load
proportional to the load hence Hooke’s law is applied on a material beyond which Hooke’s law
verified is not obeyed

Region 𝑨𝑩

 This is called the elastic region

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

  When the applied force is removed, the body COPPER
recovers its original shape and size
It undergoes both elastic and plastic deformation
 Point 𝐵 is called the elastic limit
 Elastic limit is the maximum load applied on a RUBBER
material beyond which the material cannot
recover its original shape and size It is elastic and has a greater region of elastic
deformation. It breaks suddenly when it reaches
elastic limit, it does not undergo plastic
deformation
Region 𝑩𝑪
STRESS, STRAIN AND YOUNG’S
 This is the plastic region
MODULUS
 Point 𝐶 is the yield point
 When the load is removed, the material does not STRESS (TENSILE STRESS)
recover its original shape and size
Is the force per unit cross sectional area of the
Point 𝑫 material

 This is the breaking load 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
 It is the maximum load the material can support 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Point 𝑬 The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of stress is 𝑁𝑚−2 or 𝑃𝑎

 This is the breaking point STRAIN

 Without any further increase in weights, the wire Is the ration of extension of a material to its
develops cracks and the wire undergo physical original length
changes
𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
FORCE AGAINST EXTENSION TO SHOW 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
THE COMPARISSION BETWEEN GLASS,
COPPER AND RUBBER It has no units since it’s a ratio of similar
quantities

YOUNG’S MODULUS

Is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain

𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit is 𝑁𝑚−2

Examples
GLASS
1. A wire of length 0.1𝑚 is subjected to a force of
It is brittle and has a small elastic region and 2𝑁. If the cross sectional area of the wire is
breaks suddenly when a force is applied

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 5 × 10−4 𝑚2 and the force of 2𝑁 causes an Are two forces that act towards each other
extension of 0.002𝑚. calculate making particles push together
(i) Tensile stress
(ii) Tensile strain
(iii) Young’s modulus
BENDING A BEAM
2. A wire of length 10𝑐𝑚 is subjected to a force of
When a beam is bent, one side experiences
2𝑁. If the tensile strain is 0.5 and the tensile
compression force and the other side
stress is 20𝑁𝑚−2 . Calculate the
experiences tension force
(i) The extension caused
(ii) Young’s modulus The centre of the beam is neither under tension
(iii) Cross sectional area of the wire nor compression i.e. it forms a neutral axis

STEEL
It an alloy made from iron and carbon

PROPERTIES OF STEEL
 It is stiff
 It ductile
 It is elastic The material can be removed from the central
 It is strong region without breaking or weakening the beam.
This is a hollow beam
STRUCTURES AND BEAMS

BEAMS
Examples of a hollow beam
A beam is a long, large and straight material
with a uniform cross sectional area

Effects of stress on a beam

1. Tension

Are two forces acting in opposite directions

away from each other stretching its particles
apart

2. Compression

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Advantages of hollow beams

1. Makes the structure light Rectangular structures can be made stronger

2. It is economical because less material is used (stiffer) by fixing more girders as shown below
3. It can withstand both tension and compression
4. Cracks do not spread easily

Uses of beams
1. Used in building bridges and roofs
2. Used in making table and chair stands
3. Used in making bicycle frame GIRDERS
4. Used in making window and door frames
STRUCTURE These are materials used to strengthen a
structure
Is a rigid construction that can support a load
e.g. houses, bridges, platforms etc. Types of girders

Structures are made of beams 1. Ties; are girders under tension forces
2. Struts; are girders under compression forces
A structure is strengthened by materials called
𝒈𝒊𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒔 IDENTIFYING TIES AND STRUTS

Triangular structures are said to be stronger TIES

compared to other shapes
 When a tie is removed from the structure, the
Below are certain structures of different shapes points it joins separate
subjected to the same load  When a tie is replaced by a rope, the rope
becomes tight

STRUT

 When a strut is removed from the structure, the

points it joins comes closer
 When a strut is replaced by a rope, it becomes
loose

EXAMPLES

Identify ties and struts from the structures below

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 From

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Using 𝑎 = 𝑔
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝑺 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 (b) Speed – time graph
𝟐 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔

NOTE

For bodies falling freely (dropped), 𝑔 =

10𝑚𝑠 −1

Examples

1. A small solid sphere falls freely. How far does it

fall in 5𝑠 (c) Velocity – time graph
2. Calculate the time taken by a body dropped to
attain a velocity of 100𝑚𝑠 −1
3. A small ball is dropped from the top of a vertical
cliff and takes 2.5𝑠 to reach the ground.
Calculate the height of the cliff

BODES PROJECTED UPWARDS

 When a body is thrown vertically upwards, 𝑎 =

−𝑔
 The velocity reduces by 10𝑚𝑠 −1 every second
 It decelerates until it reaches a maximum height
From
when velocity is 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
 The acceleration is negative because motion is 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
acting against gravity 1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
GRAPHS OF MOTION
(a) Displacement – time graph
Using 𝑎 = −𝑔
𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝑺 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒔

At maximum height, 𝑣 = 0

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 From; 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑠 HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
. 0 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑠
2𝑔𝑠 𝑢2
. 2𝑔
= 2𝑔
𝟐
𝒖
𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐𝒈

Examples

1. A body is thrown vertically upwards and reaches

a height of 125𝑚. Find the velocity with which
it was thrown upwards
The horizontal motion takes the same time as the
2. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an vertical motion
initial speed of 2𝑚𝑠 −1 , calculate the;
(a) Time taken to return to the receiver The time taken to hit 𝐵 = time taken to hit 𝐶
(b) Maximum height reached
Stage𝟏;Vertical motion to determine time to fall

3. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an 1

𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
initial velocity of 30𝑚𝑠 −1. Calculate 2
(a) The time taken to reach maximum
1
height ℎ = 𝑔𝑡 2
(b) Maximum height 2

𝟐𝒉
4. A bullet is fired vertically upwards and takes 4𝑠 𝒕=√
to reach the maximum height, calculate 𝒈
(a) Initial velocity of the bullet
(b) Maximum height Stage𝟐; Horizontal motion to determine
horizontal distance
5. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
initial velocity of 60𝑚𝑠 −1, calculate the; 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚; 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(a) Time taken to reach maximum height
𝑥
(b) Total distance the stone travels to return 𝑢= 𝑡
to the hands of the sender
𝒙= 𝒖×𝒕

Examples

1. A ball is thrown forward horizontally from the

top of a cliff with a velocity of 10𝑚𝑠 −1 , the
height of a cliff above the ground is 45𝑚.
Calculate the;
(a) Time taken to reach the ground

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 (b) Distance from the cliff where the ball THE TICKER TIMER
hits the ground
Is a device used to determine speed, velocity and
2. An object is released from an aircraft travelling acceleration of a body
horizontally with a velocity of 200𝑚𝑠 −1 at a It consists of a wheeled trolley which pulls a
height of 500𝑚, find; paper tape behind it and a fixed vibrator having
(a) How long it takes the object to reach the a pricking end
ground
(b) The horizontal distance covered by the object

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
USING A SIMPLE PENDULUM

The vibrator makes dots on a piece of a paper

tape that is being pulled by a wheeled trolley

1. If the trolley moves slowly, dots are close

together

2. If the trolley moves faster, the dots are far apart

3. If the trolley is accelerating, dots get apart

4. If the trolley is decelerating, dots gets closer

 A pendulum bob is tied at the end of a long piece
of thread of length, 𝑙
 The thread is clamped on a retort stand
5. If the trolley is moving with uniform velocity,
 The bob is slightly displaced and released to
dots are uniformly spaced
oscillate
 The time, 𝑡, for 20 oscillations is measured and
recorded
 The period, 𝑇 is calculated
 The procedures are repeated for different values TERMS USED
of 𝑙 1. Period, (𝑻); Is the time taken to print any two
 The results are tabulated including values of, 𝑇 2 successive dots
 A graph of 𝑇 2 against 𝑙 is plotted, a straight line is 𝑆. 𝐼 unit is 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 (𝒔)
obtained and the slope, 𝒔 is calculated
 Acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔 is calculated from 2. Frequency (𝒇); Is the number of dots made in
𝟒𝝅𝟐 one second
𝒈=
𝒔
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 𝑆. 𝐼 unit is 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒛 (𝑯𝒛) 3. A body of mass 20𝑘𝑔 travelling at 5𝑚𝑠 −1
For example 50𝐻𝑧 means 50 dots per second collides with another stationary body of mass
50 Dots are made in 1 second 10𝑘𝑔 and they move separately in the same
1 direction. If the velocity of the 20𝑘𝑔 ma after
1 dot is made in seconds
50
1 collision is 3𝑚𝑠 −1 . Calculate the velocity with
1 dot is made in 𝑠
𝑓 which the 10𝑘𝑔 mass moves with
But time for 1 dot = period (𝑇)
𝟏 4. Two particles of masses 0.2𝑘𝑔 and 0.4𝑘𝑔 are
𝑻=
𝒇 approaching each other with velocities 4𝑚𝑠 −1
and 3𝑚𝑠 −1 respectively. On collision, the first
ELASTIC COLLISION
particle reverses its direction and moves with a
Is a type of collision where kinetic energy is velocity of 2.5𝑚𝑠 −1. Find the velocity of the
conserved second particle after collision

 In this collision, the bodies separate after MOMENTUM AND EXPLOSIVES

collision
When a bullet is fired from a gun, an explosion
 Momentum is also conserved
occurs

The bullet moves forward with a velocity called

𝒎𝒖𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 and exerts an equal and
opposite force to the gun which makes it move
backwards with a velocity called
From the principle of conservation of 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
momentum
𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 is the velocity of the gun after
𝒎 𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒖 𝟐 = 𝒎 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 firing a bullet

Examples

1. A trolley 𝑃 of mass 150𝑔 moving with a velocity

of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 collides with another stationary trolley
𝑄 of mass 100𝑔. If the two trolleys move together
after collision. Calculate their common velocity

2. Two bodies of masses 3𝑘𝑔 and 5𝑘𝑔 are moving

in opposite direction on a horizontal surface. If 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
their velocities are 6𝑚𝑠 −1 and 5𝑚𝑠 −1
respectively. After collision, the bodies move in 𝑚𝑔 𝑢𝑔 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑉𝑔 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑉𝑏
the same direction, calculate
0 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑉𝑔 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑉𝑏
(a) The speed of the 3𝑘𝑔 mass after
collision 𝒎𝒈 𝑽𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝑽𝒃
(b) The loss n 𝐾. 𝐸
(c) The percentage loss in 𝐾. 𝐸 Examples

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

1. A bullet of mas 50𝑔 is fired with a velocity of LIFT MOVING DOWNWARDS
400𝑚𝑠 −1 from a gun of mass 5𝑘𝑔. Calculate
the recoil velocity 𝑅
𝑎 = 𝑚𝑠 −2
2. A bullet is fired from a gun with a horizontal
velocity of 400𝑚𝑠 −1. The mass of the gun is
3𝑘𝑔 and the bullet is 60𝑔. Find the;
(a) The initial speed of the recoil of the gun
(b) Gain in 𝐾. 𝐸 of the system 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

MOTION IN A LIFT 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

When a body of mass 𝑚 is placed inside a lift, it 𝑊 − 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
experiences two forces
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
1. Weight of the body (W)
2. Normal Reaction (R) 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂

LIFT MOVING UPWARDS The person the lift feels lighter due to the
decrease of the accelerating force, ma

WEIGHTLESNES

Is a condition in which a body falls at an

acceleration equal to the acceleration due to
gravity and the normal reaction between the
surface and the body is zero

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)

𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑔)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑹 = 𝟎𝑵
𝑅 − 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎
Examples
𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
1. A man of mass 80𝑘𝑔 is in the lift which is
𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎𝒂
moving with an acceleration of 2𝑚𝑠 −2 .
The person in a lift feels heavier due to the extra Calculate the force between the man and the lift
force, ma when the;
(i) Lift moves upwards
(ii) Lift moves downwards

2. A girl of mass 60𝑘𝑔 sits in a lift accelerating at

a rate of 7.5𝑚𝑠 −2. Calculate the normal reaction
on a girl when the lift;
(i) Acceleration downwards
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 SINKING AND FLOATATION (iii) Volume of the displaced water

When an object is immersed or submerged in a 2. An object weighs 7𝑁 in air and 3𝑁 when

fluid (𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟), its weight appears to be immersed in oil of density 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find the;
reduced because it experiences an upward force (i) Up-thrust
from the fluid called 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 (ii) Volume of the oil displaced
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 is the upward force acting on a body (iii) Density of the object
immersed in a fluid EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY
A cork held under water rises to the surface ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
when released because it experiences an up-
thrust greater than its weight

The weight of a body when immersed in a fluid

is called 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 − 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

Examples

1. A glass block weighs 25𝑁. When fully

immersed in water, it weighs 15𝑁. Calculate its
up-thrust

2. A body weighs 1𝑁 in air, 0.8𝑁 when wholly

immersed in a fluid. Calculate its up-thrust  Water is poured in the displacement can until it
runs from the spout
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE  When the water stop dripping, an empty beaker
of weight 𝑊1 is placed below the spout
“When a body is fully or partially immersed in
 The weight, 𝑊𝑎 of an object in air is measured
a fluid, it experiences an up-thrust equal to the
using a spring balance
weight of the fluid displaced”
 The object is carefully immersed in water and its
Upthrust = weight of the fluid displaced weight, 𝑊𝑤 is noted
 The weight, 𝑊2 of the beaker and the displaced
Also water is determined
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅  Weight of the displaced water = 𝑊2 − 𝑊1
 Up-thrust = 𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑤
Examples  It is found out that up-thrust= weight of water
displaced hence verifying Archimedes principle
1. A metal weighs 20𝑁 in air and 15𝑁 when fully
immersed in water. Calculate the
(i) Up-thrust
(ii) Weight of the displaced water

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 APPLICATION OF ARCHIMEDES and weighs 535𝑁 when completely immersed in
PRINCIPLE alcohol. Calculate the 𝑅. 𝐷 of alcohol and
1. Measurement of relative densities of solids density of the alcohol
2. Measurement of relative densities of liquids 5. A glass block weighs 25𝑁 in air. When
completely immersed in water, the block weighs
TO MEASURE 𝑹. 𝑫 OF SOLIDS 15𝑁. Calculate the density of the glass block
 Weight, 𝑊𝑎 of the object in air is noted
 The weight, 𝑊𝑤 of the object when fully FLOATING OBJECTS
immersed in water is noted If 𝑊 < 𝑈, the object rises up
 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑤 If 𝑊 > 𝑈, the object sinks
 𝑅. 𝐷 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 If 𝑊 = 𝑈, the object floats
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝑾𝒂 From the Archimedes principle
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
TO MEASURE 𝑹. 𝑫 OF A LIQUID
Therefore for a body to float
 Weight, 𝑊𝑎 of the object in air is noted
 Weight, 𝑊𝑤 of the object when fully immersed 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅

in water is noted
LAW OF FLOATATION
 Weight, 𝑊𝑙 of the object when fully immersed in
a liquid is noted “A floating body displaces its own weight of the
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 fluid in which it floats”
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAW OF
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
FLOATATION
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜

𝝆𝒔
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝝆𝒘

Examples

1. An object weighs 5.6𝑁 in air and 4.8𝑁 in water.

Find the 𝑅. 𝐷 and density of the solid
2. An object weighs 4.92𝑁 in air and 4.87𝑁 when
immersed in water. Calculate the density of the
object  A floater is weighed in air and its weight is
3. An object weighs 100𝑁 in air and 84𝑁 in water. noted
If it weighs 60𝑁 in a liquid 𝑋, find the 𝑅. 𝐷 of  Water is poured in an overflow can until it runs
liquid 𝑋 out of the spout
4. A piece of iron weighs 555𝑁 in air. When  When the water stop dripping, an empty beaker
completely immersed in water, it weighs 530𝑁 of weight, 𝑊1 is placed below the spout

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

(a) plane reflector (ii) circular waves
(i) plane wave fronts

(ii) plane wave fronts on inclined plane (c) convex reflector

reflector (i) plane waves

(iii) circular wave front on plane reflector (ii) circular waves

(b) concave reflector

(i) plane waves
REFRACTION OF WAVES

Is the bending of a wave as it travels from one

medium to another of different optical densities

It is caused due to change in wavelength and

velocity of the wave. However the frequency
and the period are not affected

In a ripple tank, refraction is brought about by

change in water depth
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 Refraction on concave lens

DIFFRACTION OF WAVES

Is the spreading of waves around obstacles or as

they pass through gaps

The smaller the gap, the greater the degree of

diffraction

(a) wide gap

Wavelength (𝜆1 ) in deep water is greater than

wavelength (𝜆2 ) in shallow water therefore a
wave travels faster in deep water than in shallow
water

Refraction on convex lens

When the width of the gap is large, the straight

waves pass through as nearly straight waves

(b) narrow gap

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 When the width of the gap is smaller, the waves If the two waves are sound waves, no sound is
pass through as circular waves heard

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES Consider wave fronts passing in two narrow

gaps as shown below
Is the superposition of two waves travelling in
the same direction having the same amplitude,
frequency and wavelength

If two waves have the same amplitude,

wavelength and frequency, they are said to be
identical and the waves are in phase.

TYPES OF INTERFERENCE

1. Constructive interference

Is a type of interference in which the interfering THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

waves have a displacement in the same direction
e.g. a crest meeting a crest or a trough meeting a Are waves which consists of electric and
trough magnetic fields of high frequency

They don’t require a material medium for their

transmission

Examples are;

1. gamma rays
2. X-rays
If two waves are light waves, much brighter 3. Ultra-violet rays
light is obtained. 4. Visible light
5. Infra-red
If the two waves are sound waves, a louder
6. Radio waves
sound is heard

2. Destructive interference Properties of electromagnetic waves

1. They can travel in vacuum
Is a type of interference in which the interfering 2. They travel at speed of light in a vacuum
waves have a displacement in opposite direction. 3. They travel in a straight line
E.g a crest meeting a trough 4. They are transverse
5. They possess energy
6. They are reflected, refracted, diffracted, and
interfered

If the two waves are light waves, darkness is

observed

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Reflection of sound
The electromagnetic spectrum
Experiment to verify the laws of reflection of
Increasing wavelength (decreasing frequency) sound
Gamma X- Ultra- Visible Infra- Radio
rays rays violet light red waves

This can be remembered well using 𝑮𝒂𝑿𝑼𝑽𝑰𝑹𝒂

Transmission of sound

Sound requires a material medium for

transmission. It travels faster in solids followed
by liquids than air.

Experiment to show that sound requires a A ticking watch is placed near the 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑇 and
material medium for transmission the tube is made to face a hard plane surface

The ear is placed at the end of the 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑅

Tube R is moved until a loud sound of the

ticking watch is heard

Angles 𝑖 and 𝑟 are measured which are the

angles of incidence and reflection

Angle 𝑖 = angle 𝑟 and the tubes lie along the

same plane, this verifies the laws of reflection

Refraction of sound
An electric bell is placed in air tight bell jar
connected to a vacuum pump Is the bending of sound as it travels from one
medium to another of different optical densities
When the bell is switched on, a loud sound is
heard Refraction occurs due to the change in the speed
of sound which is also affected by temperature
When the air is gradually reduced from the bell
jar using a vacuum pump. Question

The loudness of sound reduces gradually until Explain why it is easier to hear sound at night
no sound is heard when all air is removed but than during day
the hammer is seen hitting the gong
During day, the ground is hot and this makes the
This shows that sound requires a material air near it to be hot while above air is cool.
medium for its transmission Sound from the source is refracted away from
the ground and makes it not clear.
NB, When air is allowed back, sound is heard
again

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

At night, the ground is cool and this makes the An echo is produced when sound waves strike a
air near the ground to be cool while above to be reflecting surface
warm. Sound from the source is refracted
towards the ground making it easier to hear Echoes are not heard in small rooms because the
sound. reflected sound waves return very quickly and
mix up with the original sound
Diffraction of sound waves

Is spreading of sound waves around corners or

in gaps.

This enables a person behind a house to hear

sound from inside the house
. 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 2𝑑
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
.𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑚𝑒

2𝑑
Interference of sound waves .𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑, 𝑣 = 𝑡

When two sound waves of the same frequency, Examples

amplitude and wave length moving in the same
direction overlap, they produce regions of loud 1. A girl stands at 34𝑚 away from a reflecting
sound (constructive interference) and regions of wall. She makes sound and hears an echo after
quiet sound (destructive interference) 0.2𝑠 find the velocity of sound

Experiment to show interference of sound 2. A gun was fired. An echo from a cliff is heard
8𝑠 later. If the velocity of sound is 330𝑚𝑠 −1,
how far was the gun from the cliff
3. A student is standing between two walls and
makes a clap. He hears the first echo after
2𝑠and anther after a further 3𝑠. If the velocity
of sound is 330𝑚𝑠 −1. Find the distance
between the walls
When you move along AB, regions of loud
sound and quiet sound are experienced, this 4. A man is standing midway between two cliffs.
demonstrates interference. He claps his hands and hears an echo after 3𝑠.
Find the distance between the two cliffs
Loud sound means constructive interference ( 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 330𝑚𝑠 −1 )
where as quiet sound means destructive
interference 5. Sound of frequency 250𝐻𝑧 is produced 120𝑚
from a cliff. Calculate the
ECHOES (i) Time taken for the sound to travel to the
Is a reflected sound wall and back
(ii) The wavelength of the sound
( 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 330𝑚𝑠 −1)
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 RESONANCE
Experiment to determine the speed of sound
using the echo method Is where a system is set into vibration at its own
natural frequency as a result of a neighboring
system vibrating with the same frequency
2𝐿
. 3 = 2𝐿𝑓0
The resonance tube
.from 𝑉 = 𝜆𝑓 It is a glass tube containing water and a tap at
2𝐿 the bottom
.𝑉 = 𝑓
3 2

. 𝑓2 = 3𝑓0

A string forms both odd and even harmonics i.e

1𝑓0, 2𝑓0, 3𝑓0, 4𝑓0, 5𝑓0 etc

Example

1. A string of length 0.5𝑚 vibrates to give a

sound of a velocity 320𝑚𝑠 −1. Find its
(i) 3𝑟𝑑 overtone
(ii) 3𝑟𝑑 harmonic
(iii) 6𝑡ℎ harmonic Experiment to demonstrate resonance using a
resonance tube
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE
FREQUENCY OF A STRING

1. Tension; frequency increases with tension,

𝑓𝛼√𝑇
1
2. Length; frequency decreases with length, 𝑓𝛼 𝐿
3. Thickness (mass per unit length); frequency
1
decreases with thickness 𝑓𝛼 √𝑚

Example

The frequency of a wave produced by a

vibrating string is 320𝐻𝑧when the tension is A vibrating tuning fork is placed above the
330𝑁. Calculate the frequency of the wave that resonance tube
is produced when the tension is increased by
The tap is opened to lower the water level which
120𝑁
increases the air column

A time is reached when a loud sound is heard.

This demonstrates resonance

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Determining the speed of sound in air using 2. A tube closed at one end resonates first at the
the resonance method length of 17.5𝑐𝑚 and again at 51.5𝑐𝑚. find the
frequency of the vibration
( speed of sound in air = 340𝑚𝑠 −1)

VIBRATIONS IN PIPES

1. CLOSED PIPES

Is one with one end closed and the other open eg

a long drum

(a) First position or fundamental frequency

(𝒇𝟎 ) (Has one node)

A resonance tube is filled with water

A vibrating tuning fork of a known frequency is

held above air in the tube
𝜆
The length of the air column is adjusted by .𝐿=4
opening the tap until a loud sound is heard
.𝜆 = 4𝐿
The length of the air column 𝐿1 is noted
. from 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
𝜆
𝐿1 + 𝑐 = 4
………………………(i) . 𝑉 = 4𝐿𝑓0

The length of the air column is further increased 𝑉

.𝑓0 =
4𝐿
utill a second loud sound is heard
(b) Second resonance, 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝟏
The new length of the air column 𝐿2 is noted
(Has 2 nodes)
3𝜆
𝐿2 + 𝑐 = 4
……………………….(ii)

(𝑖𝑖) − (𝑖)

Then the speed of sound 𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟐 )

Examples 4𝐿
.𝜆 =
3
1. The tuning fork of frequency 256𝐻𝑧 produced
resonance in the tube of length 32.5𝑐𝑚 and one From 𝑉 = 𝜆𝑓
of length 95.0𝑐𝑚. Calculate the speed of sound 4𝐿
in air .𝑉= 3 1
𝑓

4𝐿
. 3 1
𝑓 = 4𝐿𝑓0

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest

ELECTROSTATICS It is the study of the force between two charged

bodies at rest
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
ELECTRIFICATION
An atom consists of a central part called the
𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 Is a process of producing electric charges on a
body that are either negative or positive
A nucleus contain 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 that are positively
charged and 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 that are 𝑛𝑜𝑡 charged METHODS OF ELECTRIFICATION
𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙
1. By friction (rubbing); it is good for insulators
Outside the nucleus, there are 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 that are 2. By contact (conduction); it is good for
negatively charged and they revolve around the conductors
nucleus 3. By induction; it is good for conductors

On a neutral atom, the number of electrons is INSULATORS

equal to the number of protons
Is a material without free electrons and cannot
When an atom loses an electron, it will contain allow flow of charge through it
more positive charges than negative charges and
it is said to be positively charged OR

When an atom gains an electron, it will contain Is a material that cannot allow electricity to flow
more negative charges than positive charges and through it
it is said to be negatively charged
For example; Wood, Rubber, Wool

Insulators are charged by rubbing

CHARGING AN INSULATOR

 When two insulators are rubbed together, one

Summary loses electrons and becomes positively charged
while another gains electrons and becomes
Particle Charge Location negatively charged

neutron (𝑛) No charge In the

 When a plastic material is rubbed against dry
nucleus
hair and then brought near small pieces of
Proton (𝑃) Positive (+) In the papers, it will attract the small pieces of paper
nucleus
 When a glass rod is rubbed on silk, glass is
Electron (𝑒) Negative (−) Outside the ready to attract small pieces of paper
nucleus
Summary

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 CHARGING AN ELECTROSCOPE

There are two methods of charging an

electroscope

1. Contact method
2. Electrostatic induction

CONTACT METHOD
 A charged rod is rubbed on the metal cap of the
𝐺. 𝐿. 𝐸 to be charged. After sometimes, the rod is
removed
Explanation
 The 𝐺. 𝐿. 𝐸 diverge, this means that it is now
charged  The charged rod induces a positive charge on the
cap and repels negative charges to the leaf and
NOTE
the leaf repels
 If the rod is negatively charged, the 𝐺. 𝐿. 𝐸 is  Earthing is done and negative charges flow to
charged negative and if the rod is positively the ground
charged, the 𝐺. 𝐿. 𝐸 is charged positive  When the charged rod is removed, the charge on
the cap distributes leaving the electroscope
Explanation positively charged

 The charged rod induces on opposite charge on

(ii) NEGATIVELY
the cap and repels the charge of its kind to the
 A positively charged rod is brought near the cap
leaf just before it comes into contact the cap
of the electroscope
 When the rod touches the cap, its charges are
 With the charging rod still in place, the cap is
neutralized by the charge on the cap
earthed by touching
 The charge on the leaf distributes making the
 The earthing is broken and the charging rod
electroscope charged
removed
 This leaves the electroscope negatively charged
CHARGING BY INDUCTION

(i) POSITIVELY
 A negatively charged rod is brought near the
cap of electroscope
 The cap is then earthed by touching with the
charging rod still in place
 The earthing is broken and then charging rod
removed
 This leaves the electroscope positively charged

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 NOTE

 It is not advisable to touch the copper strip of the

lightning conductor
During a thunderstorm, a current may pass
through the conductor and when one touches the
strip, current flows through the body and this
causes an electric shock

DANGERS OF LIGHTNING

During lightning, a very large current flows

between the cloud and the earth. This may lead
to;

THE LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR 1. Death of people and animals

2. Destruction of properties like building
3. Causes power surge
4. Destroys electrical gadgets

ELECTRIC FIELD

Is a region around an electric charge in which

electric force is felt

OR

Is a region around a charged conductor where

electric force is experienced

In electric fields, there are electric lines of force

called electric field lines

 When a negatively charged cloud passes over

the spikes, it induces a positive charge on the
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC FIELD
spike and repels negative charges to the earth
LINES
 Ionization of air around the spikes occurs
forming positive and negative ions 1. They originate from positive charge to negative
 Positive ions are attracted to the cloud and partly charge
neutralize the negative charges there 2. They are in a state of tension
 Negative ions are attracted to the spikes and 3. They do not cross or touch each other
neutralize the positive charges on the spike 4. They repel each other sideways
 The excess negative charges are driven to the
earth through the copper strip which reduces the ELECTRIC FIELD PATTERNS
possibility of lightning 1. Isolated positive charge

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 4. Two opposite plates

2. Isolated negative charge

5. A positive charge and a negative plate

3. Two opposite charges

6. Positively charged plates near each other

Two positive charges

7. Hollow sphere (positive)

Two negative charges

ELECTRIC CELLS

Is a device which directly changes chemical

energy to electrical energy

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CELLS

A neutral point is a region in an electric field 1. Primary cell

where electric force is not felt (experienced) 2. Secondary cell

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 PRIMARY CELLS The electrons which flow to the positive plate
(𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟) combines with ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 to
Are cells that cannot be recharged form ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 which is given off at the
In primary cells, electric current is produced as a 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
result of non-reversible chemical reaction +
2𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 → 𝐻2(𝑔)
Examples
DEFECTS OF A SIMPLE CELL
 Dry cell
A defect is the one that reduces the amount of
 Simple cell
current produced by a simple cell
 Wet laclanche cell
A SIMPLE CELL DEFECT HOW TO
MINIMISE
This consists of copper and zinc plates joined
with a conductor and placed in electrolyte 1. POLARIZATION It is reduced by adding
 This is the formation a depolarizer like
The electrolyte used is of hydrogen bubbles 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 (𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) on the copper plate.
 This insulates the This oxidizes the
anode and weakens the ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 to form
current
water
 Polarization increases
internal resistance

2. LOCAL ACTION Cleaning 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 with

 This is due to the 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 and
impurities in 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 coating it with
 It makes 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 to be mercury
used up even when
current is not supplied
The more reactive metal (𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐) is the cathode
and a less reactive metal (𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟) is the anode
THE DRY CELL
Dilute sulphuric acid ionizes as follows
+ 2−
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞)

When the circuit is complete, the 𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑐 goes into

solution to form 𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑍𝑛2+ each leaving
two electrons behind

𝑍𝑛(𝑠) → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒

The electrons produced flow through the wire to

the copper plate and current flows from the
positive (𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟) towards the negative (𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐)

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

  An accumulator is recharged by passing a
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑑. 𝑐) through it in opposite
direction to the current it supplies
 The positive terminal of the 𝑑. 𝑐 source is
connected to positive terminal of the
accumulator while the negative terminal of the
𝑑. 𝑐 source is connected to negative terminal of
the accumulator
 The acid becomes more concentrated during
charging and the 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 increases up
to 1.25
 When the accumulator is fully charged, oxygen
is given off from the positive plate and hydrogen
from the negative terminal
 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 is the anode and 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 is the cathode
 The electrolyte used is NOTE
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑦
 𝑮𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 is the giving off of gases from the
 The source of electrical energy is the chemical
terminals of the accumulator during charging
reaction between 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 and 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
 When a battery is charging, electrical energy
 As a result, 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 is produced which
changes to chemical energy
collects at the 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 and polarizes the cell
 Direct current, 𝑑. 𝑐 is used during charging
 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑒 (𝐼𝑉)𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 acts as a depolarizing
process because alternating current, 𝑎. 𝑐 would
agent which oxidizes the ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 to water
charge in the first cycle and then discharge in the
 When the 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 is eaten away due to reaction, the next half cycle
cell becomes exhausted (used up)  Rheostat is used to adjust current
NOTE
ALKALINE CELLS
 Even if the cell is not working, 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 reduces 1. NICKLE – IRON (𝑵𝒊𝒇𝒆) CELLS
because of 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The anode is 𝑁𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 and the
cathode is 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛.

The electrolyte used is

𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 (𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠ℎ)

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

  The 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 of alkaline cells is low .𝐼 =
𝑄
𝑡
 It has a higher internal resistance
.𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
USES
1. It is used for emergency lightning The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of current is 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 (𝑨)

Current is measured using an ammeter

ADVANTAGES OF ALKALINE CELLS
The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of charge is 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 (𝑪)
OVER LEAD ACID ACCUMULATORS
A 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 is the quantity of charge that
1.They can stay un-charged for a longer period
passes any point in a circuit when a steady
2.They do not require much attention
current of 1𝐴 flows for 1𝑠
3.They have a longer life span
4.They provide large currents without being Examples
damaged
5. It is not affected by overcharging 1. A current of 3𝐴 flows for 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 in the
DISADVANTAGES circuit containing a lamp. How much charge is
1. They are expensive flowing through the lamp
2. They have a low 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 and high internal
resistance 2. If a charge of 3𝐶 was passed for 1𝑠. What is
current is flowing
CAPACITY OF AN
ACCUMULATOR 3. A charge of 4𝐶 is flowing through a conductor
at a rate of 0.5𝑠. calculate the current flowing
Is the amount of electricity which an
accumulator can store 4. Calculate the amount of current flowing through
a wire where 0.8𝐶 of charge passes a point in a
It is measured in 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (𝐴ℎ)
given wire in 2𝑠
𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑨) × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆(𝒉)
5. A charge of 180𝐶 flows through a lamp for
𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑰𝒕 2𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠. What is the current flowing in the
lamp
10𝐴ℎ means that an accumulator can supply a
current of 10𝐴 for 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 or 5𝐴 in 2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 ENERGY CONVERSIONS

Electric energy can be changed from one form to

another using devices e.g.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. Electric bulb converts electrical energy to heat
ELECTRIC CURRENT (𝑰)
and light energy
Is the rate of flow of charge. 2. Motors convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄) 3. Heaters convert electrical energy to heat energy
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝑡𝑚𝑒 (,𝑡)
4. Microphones convert sound energy to electrical
energy

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

5. Generators convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy
6. Loud speakers convert electrical energy to sound
energy

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Is a path through conductors in which current

flows 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
SYMBOLS USED IN ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙
1. OPEN CIRCUIT

Is a circuit in which no current

+ is drawn from the
source −

𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

A
2. CLOSED CIRCUIT
𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Is a circuit in which current is drawn from the
source to other components

𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑂𝑅

𝑅ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡

𝑂𝑅 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

1. Heating and lighting of electric bulb

2. Deflection of a plotting compass
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑏
3. Formation of bubbles of hydrogen gas from the
acids

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Is the work done to move 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 of a

charge from one point to another in a circuit

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 .𝑃. 𝑑, 𝑉 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑊
.𝑉 = 𝑄

.𝑾 = 𝑽𝑸 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit is 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 (𝑽)
For only two resistors in parallel
𝑃. 𝑑 is measured using a 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
1 1 1
A 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕 is the 𝑝. 𝑑 between two points when = +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 of work moves 1𝐶 of charge between
two points 1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1
=
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (𝑬. 𝑴. 𝑭); 𝑬

Is the terminal 𝑝. 𝑑 of a cell in an open circuit

𝑹𝟏 × 𝑹𝟐
𝑹=
OR 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝒔𝒖𝒎
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
Examples
 𝑝. 𝑑 across each resistor is the same
 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 is different 1. Calculate the effective resistance in the
 Total current 𝐼 = sum of current in each following arrangements
resistor (a)

(b)

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 (c)
𝑏𝑢𝑡

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 (d) (ii) Power dissipated in the 4Ω resistor

2. In the figure below, two batteries of 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓1.5𝑉

and internal resistance 1Ω each are connected to
a network of resistors in a circuit as shown

(e)

(i) What will be the reading of the

ammeter when switch 𝑆 is closed
(ii) What is the power developed in the 4Ω
when 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ, 𝑆 is closed

Calculate
PAYING FOR ELECTRICITY
(i) The current in the 6Ω resistor
The board (𝑈𝑀𝐸𝑀𝐸) charges electricity it
(ii) The power expended in the 6Ω resistor
supplies
(iii) The total power expended
The energy consumed is measured in
1. In the diagram below, a 12𝑉 battery of internal 𝑲𝑾𝒉 (𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓)
resistance 0.6Ω is connected to the three
resistors of 10Ω, 4Ω and 6Ω as shown below A Kilowatt hour (𝑲𝑾𝒉) is the electrical
energy consumed by an appliance working at a
rate of 1𝐾𝑊 for one hour

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑) (𝐾𝑊) (ℎ𝑟𝑠)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑷(𝑲𝑾) × 𝒕(𝒉𝒓) × 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 (𝒔𝒉𝒔)

Find
Examples
(i) Current in each resistor

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

1. Four bulbs each rated at 75𝑊 each operates for
120ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠. If the cost of electricity is 𝑆ℎ𝑠 100
per unit, find the total cost of electricity

2. An electric immersion heater is rated at

3000𝑊,240𝑉. Calculate the
(i) Current and resistance of the heating
filament
(ii) Total number electric units it consumes in
1
1 2 hours
In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal
(iii) Cost per unit if 𝑆ℎ𝑠. 9000 is paid after
to the number of electrons
using it for 3ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 everyday for 10𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
Neutrons and protons are collectively known as
3. Mr. Mido uses 3kettles of 800𝑊 each, a flat nucleons
iron of 1000𝑊, 3 bulbs of 60𝑊 each and 4
bulbs of 75𝑊each. If they are used for 3ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 Particle Symbol Charge
every day for 30𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 and that one unit of
1 +
electricity costs 𝑆ℎ𝑠. 200, find the total cost of Proton 1𝑃

running the appliances 0

Electron −1𝑒 −
1 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
Neutron 0𝑛

ATOMIC PHYSICS (MODERN PHYSICS)

ATOMIC NUMER, MASS NUMBER AND
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
ISOTOPES
An atom consists of a small positively charged
1. Atomic number (𝒁); is the number of protons
nucleus with negatively charged electrons
in the nucleus of an atom
rotating around

The nucleus is the central positively charged part 2. Mass number (Atomic mass) (𝑨); is the total
of an atom number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom
The nucleus contain protons that are positively 𝐴=𝑍+𝑛
charged and the neutrons which are not charged An atom 𝑋 with atomic number 𝑍 and mass
number 𝐴 is represented as 𝐴𝑍𝑋

Example
1. What is the composition of the atom 192
14𝑌
14 = 178Atomic mass (mass number) 𝐴 =
192
Atomic number 𝑍 = 14
Neutron number (number of neutrons)

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 𝑛 = 192 − 14 = 178 Radioactive nuclide is the spontaneous
Number of electrons = 14 breakdown of un-stable nucleus to a stable
nucleus with emission of alpha, beta particles
Isotopes; are atoms of the same element having and gamma rays.
the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons Examples of radioactive elements are; uranium,
radon, polonium, thorium, cobalt
𝑶𝑹
ALPHA PARTICLES (𝜶)
Isotopes; are atoms of the same element having
the same atomic number but different mass When an alpha particle is emitted by a
number (atomic mass) radioactive source, the mass number 𝐴 reduces
by 𝟒 and atomic number 𝑍 reduces by 𝟐
Examples of isotopes
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁−𝟐𝒀 +𝜶
1. Carbon 126𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 146𝐶
2. Lithium 73𝐿𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 63𝐿𝑖 Therefore an alpha particle is equivalent to
3. Uranium 235 238
92𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 92𝑈 helium nucleus 42𝐻 𝑒
4. Hydrogen 11𝐻 , 21𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 31𝐻
Alpha particle is a helium nucleus
Isotopes have the same number of protons, since
𝑶𝑹
the number of protons = the number of electrons
Alpha particle is a helium atom that has lost its
Therefore isotopes have the same number of
two orbital electrons
electrons
It has a mass number of 4 and atomic number of
The chemical properties depends on the number
of electrons in the outmost shell, therefore 2
isotopes have the same chemical properties and
not easy to distinguish

PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES

RADIOACTIVITY
1. They are positively charged
Is the spontaneous breakdown of unstable 2. They have the least penetrating power
nucleus to form a stable nucleus with emission 3. They have the highest ionizing power
of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays 4. They are deflected by magnetic fields
Radioactivity is a random process because no 5. They are deflected by electric fields
particular pattern is followed 6. They are easily absorbed by matter
7. They travel at a slow speed (less than speed of
It is a spontaneous because it cannot be affected light)
by physical conditions like pressure and 8. They cause florescence
temperature but occurs on its own 9. They have short range in air
10. They are all emitted at the same speed
During radioactivity, the atom disintegrating
changes into atoms of different elements Examples
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
1. Uranium 238 92𝑈 decays by emission of alpha 4. They possess kinetic energy
particles to thorium 𝑇ℎ. What is the composition 5. They affect a photographic plate
of thorium 𝑇ℎ 6. They cause certain substances fluorescence
7. They cause ionization of gas molecules
2. Uranium 238 92𝑈 decays by emitting 4 alpha
8. They can penetrate a thin aluminum foil
particles to nucleus 𝑋. What is the composition
of nucleus 𝑋 TO SHOW THAT CATHODE RAYS
TRAVEL IN A STRAIGHT LINE
BETA PARTICLES (𝜷)
The maltose cross tube
When an atom emits a beta particle, its mass
number does not change but the atomic number
increases by one (1)
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + 𝜷

Therefore beta particle is equivalent to an

electron −10𝑒

Definition
Cathode rays from the filament move through
Beta particles are streams of high energy
the anode in a straight line
electrons
Some are stopped by the maltese cross while the
A bate particle has a mass number of zero (0)
others strike the screen
and atomic number −1
A sharp shadow is formed on the screen and
this shows that cathode rays travel in a straight
line

Electrons are accelerated towards the anode by TO SHOW THAT CATHODE RAYS ARE
the 𝐸. 𝐻. 𝑇 DEFLECTED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The electrons travel in a straight line and strike

the screen where they produce a glow

The stream of fast moving electron is cathode

rays

When cathode rays are directed in between poles

of a magnet, they are deflected towards the
PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS
North Pole
1. They travel in a straight line
TO SHOW THAT CATHODE RAYS ARE
2. They carry a negative charge
DEFLECTED IN ELECTRIC FIELDS
3. They are deflected by both magnetic and electric
fields

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 The filament emit electrons by thermionic
emission

Electrons are accelerated towards the anode by

the 𝐸. 𝐻. 𝑇 (accelerating voltage)

When the cathode rays strike the target, much of

Before applying an electric energy on the plates, the kinetic energy is converted to heat and the
the spot is formed at 𝐴. When the electrical rest to 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
energy is applied on the plates, the spot is
Note
suddenly deflected to 𝐵.
1. The focusing cap is concave and it focuses the
This shows that cathode rays are deflected in an
beam of electrons onto the metal target
electric field towards the positive plate and that
they carry a negative charge
2. The tube is evacuated to prevent collisions
APPLICATION OF CATHODE RAYS with the air molecules which reduce the speed of
electrons and this reduces the strength of the
1. 𝑋 −rays 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
3. The cooling fins are embedded on copper anode
𝑿 − 𝑹𝑨𝒀𝑺 because copper is a good conductor of heat and
it conducts away heat which reduces the
These are electromagnetic radiations of very
temperature of the 𝑋 −ray tube
short wavelength produced when cathode rays
strike a metal target
4. The lead shield prevents stray 𝑋 −rays
PRODUCTION OF 𝑿 − 𝑹𝑨𝒀𝑺
INTENSITY AND STRENGTH OF 𝑿 −
𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 are produced in an 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 tube 𝑹𝑨𝒀𝑺

𝑿 − 𝑹𝑨𝒀 TUBE INTENSITY

The intensity (quantity) of 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 produced is

increased by increasing the filament current
which increase the number of electrons
produced hence increasing the number of
electrons striking the target

STRENGTH

This is the quality of 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 produced. The

strength is increased by increasing the
accelerating voltage which increases the speed
of electrons striking the target hence increasing
The filament is heated by a low voltage supply the strength of 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 (penetrating power)

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 ENERGY CHANGES IN 𝑿 − 𝑹𝑨𝒀 TUBE  The anode accelerates and focuses electrons on
the screen
Electrical energy → Heat energy → K.E →
Heat energy + 𝑿 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔 1. Deflection system
PROPERTIES OF 𝑿 − 𝑹𝑨𝒀𝑺 It consists of 𝑋 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 and 𝑌 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
1. They travel in a straight line  The 𝑋 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 deflects the electron beam
2. They can travel in a vacuum horizontally
3. They carry no charge
 The 𝑌 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 deflects the electron beam
4. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic
vertically
fields
5. They readily penetrate matter
2. Fluorescent screen
6. They ionize gas molecules
 It produces a glow (bright spot) when a beam
7. They cause fluorescence
of electrons strike it
8. They affect a photographic plate
9. They travel at a speed of light in vacuum NOTE
USES OF 𝑿 − 𝑹𝑨𝒀𝑺
 The vacuum prevents collisions between the
MEDICAL electrons and air molecules
 Graphite coating prevents secondary emission
1. They are used to detect lung 𝑇. 𝐵
of electrons
2. They are used to treat cancer
3. They are used to detect bone fractures
USES OF A 𝑪. 𝑹. 𝑶
4. They are used to sterilize medical equipment
1. Used to measure both 𝑑. 𝑐 and 𝑎. 𝑐 voltage
5. They are used to detect foreign bodies e.g. coins,
2. Used to measure small time intervals
bullets in the body
3. Used to display waveforms
4. Used to measure frequency
INDUSTRIAL 5. Used to display pictures in monitors of 𝑇𝑉𝑠,
computers
1. They are used to detect hidden cracks in welded THE APPEARANCE OF THE SPOT
joints ON THE 𝑪. 𝑹. 𝑶 SCREEN
2. They are used to study structures of crystals
The 𝐶. 𝑅. 𝑂 is used to display waveforms
It consists of a heater connected to a low showing how 𝑝. 𝑑 varies with time
voltage, cathode, control grid and anode
The 𝑝. 𝑑 is applied to the 𝑌 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 and the a
 The low voltage heats the heater circuit called a time base is switched on which
 The heater heats up the cathode generates a 𝑝. 𝑑 across the 𝑋 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
 The cathode emits electrons by thermionic
emission (a) 𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 off and time base off
 The grid controls the number of electrons
striking the screen and hence controlling the
brightness of the spot

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 The electrons produced are called
𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

(b) 𝒅. 𝒄 on 𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 and time base off Examples of electromagnetic radiations that
cause photoelectric are; ultra-violet and 𝑥 −
𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

(c) 𝒂. 𝒄 on 𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 and time base off

(d) 𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 off and time base on

 A clean zinc plate is placed on the metal cap of a

𝐺. 𝐿. 𝐸
(e) 𝒂. 𝒄 on 𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 and time base on
 Ultra-violet light is directed towards the zinc
plate
If the 𝐺. 𝐿. 𝐸 is negatively charged, the leaf
collapses as the light falls onto the zinc plate
 The electrons emitted are repelled by the
negative charges on the zinc plate and this
leaves the zinc plate positively charged
ADVANTAGES OF 𝑪. 𝑹. 𝑶 OVER A
 Electrons move from the gold leaf to the zinc
VOLTMETER
plate to replace the lost electrons, therefore the
1. A 𝐶. 𝑅. 𝑂 measures both 𝑎. 𝑐 and 𝑑. 𝑐 voltage
divergence of the gold leaf reduces
2. A 𝐶. 𝑅. 𝑂 draws very little current from the
If the 𝐺. 𝐿. 𝐸 is positively charged, no change in
circuit because it has a very low resistance
divergence of the gold leaf occurs
 Electrons are emitted from the zinc plate are
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
attracted back by the positively charged zinc
Is a process by which electrons are produced plate
from a clean metal surface when  Hence there is no change in the magnitude of
electromagnetic radiations of high frequency fall charge on the gold leaf
on it

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL DENSITY
PHOTOELETRIC EMISSION
It is how easy light travels through a given
Used in 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 medium. The more easy light travels through a
given medium, the lower the optical density of
Photocells find applications in; that medium.
1. Burglar alarms Air has a lower optical density than glass and
2. Automatic doors water
3. Automatic lighting controls
TERMS USED IN REFRACTION
PHOTOCELL

𝑁𝑁 ′ = Normal line

𝑂𝐴 = Incident ray

𝐴 = Point of incidence

𝐴𝐵 = Refracted ray
 When 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎 − 𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 radiation falls on a metal
cathode, it emits electrons by photoelectric 𝑖 = Angle of incidence
emission
𝑟 = Angle of refraction
 The electrons are attracted to the anode and
completes the circuit When a light ray travels from an optically less
dense medium to an optically denser medium, it
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
is bent towards the normal
Is the change in direction of a light ray as it
moves from one medium to another of different
optical density

OR

Is the bending of a light ray as it moves from

one medium to another of different optical
When a light ray travels from an optically denser
densities
medium to an optically less dense medium, it is
Refraction is due to change in velocity of light bent away from the normal
as it travels from one medium to another of
different optical densities
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 EFFECTS OF REFRACTION
1. A stick dipped in water appears bent

LAWS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT

1. The constant, 𝒏 is called The incident ray, the

refracted ray and the normal at the point of 2. A pond appears shallower than its real depth
incidence all lie in the same plane
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the
sine of angle of refraction is constant for any
pair of media.
(𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒏𝒆𝒍𝒍′ 𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘) i.e.
sin 𝑖
sin 𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 the refractive index

REFRACTIVE INDEX, (𝒏)

Light rays from the bottom surface are incident
Is the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the at the surface of water. The rays are refracted
sine of angle of refraction for a ray of light away from the normal. The observer sees the ray
moving from one medium to another of different as if it is coming from 𝐼 which is near than the
optical density real depth
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 3. An object placed under a glass block appears
𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 nearer

(a) Find the refractive index of water relative to

glass

A light ray from 𝑂 is refracted away from the

normal on reaching point 𝐴, it appears to be
coming from 𝐼 which is the image of 𝑂 which is
nearer the surface

DETERMINING THE REFRACTIVE

INDEX OF GLASS USING A GLASS
BLOCK
(a) Find the angles 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧
(b) Find the refractive index of glass relative to
water
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 Real depth is the actual depth of the medium

Apparent depth is the height between the

image and the top surface of the medium

An object 𝑂 placed below a glass appear to be

nearer to the top when viewed from above, this
depth is called apparent depth

A glass block is placed on a white sheet of paper

and its outline 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 traced

A normal line 𝑂𝑁 is drawn at 𝑂

A line 𝐴𝑂 is drawn making an angle of 𝑖 = 100

which the normal

The glass block is replaced onto its outline

Pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are fixed along the line 𝐴𝑂

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
While looking through side 𝑆𝑅, pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
are also fixed such that they appear to be in a
straight line with the images of 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 Examples

The glass block is removed together with the 1. A swimming pool appears to be only 1.5𝑚 deep.
pins 4
If the refractive index of water is 3. Calculate the
A line is drawn passing through the holes of 𝑃3 real depth of the water in the pool.
and 𝑃4 to meet 𝑆𝑅 at 𝐵 is drawn
2. A pin at the bottom of a beaker containing a
Point 𝐵 is joined to 𝑂 and the angle 𝑟 is transparent liquid at a depth 24𝑐𝑚 is apparently
measured displaced by 6𝑐𝑚. Calculate the refractive index
of the liquid
The experiment is repeated for different values 3. A coin is placed at the bottom of the beaker
of 𝑖 which contains water at a depth of 8𝑐𝑚. How
The results are tabulated including values of far the coin when viewed from a above does it
appear to be raised
sin 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝑟
4. The bottom of a fish pond appears to be 2.4𝑚
A graph of sin 𝑖 against sin 𝑟 is plotted below the surface of the water. If the refractive
index of water is 1.33. calculate the real depth
A straight line through the origin is obtained
DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE
The slope, 𝑛 of the graph is calculated INDEX OF GLASS USING REAL AND
APPARENT DEPTH
The slope, 𝑛 is the refractive index of the glass

REAL DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 To an observer, the image of the sky appears as
a pool of water on the road

REFRACTION THROUGH A
TRIANGULAR PRISM

A glass block is placed vertically over a straight From the prism above
line drawn on a sheet of paper
𝑖1 = Angle of incidence
A pin on a sliding cork adjacent to the block is
then moved up and down until there is no 𝑂𝑁 = Incident ray
parallax between it and the image of the line as
seen through the block 𝑀𝐿 = Emergent ray

The real depth and the apparent depth are 𝑟1 = Angle of refraction
measured and noted
𝑖2 = Angle of emergence
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Refractive index= 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑆 and 𝑀𝑆 = normal line

𝐴 = Prism angle (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)

𝐷 = Angle of deviation

Also 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 𝐷

. 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴

. 𝐷 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − 𝐴

At point 𝑁 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟

Light rays from the sky is gradually refracted
away from the normal as it passes from dense At point 𝑀 𝑛𝑔 sin 𝑟2 = 𝑛1 sin 𝑖2
layers of air to less dense layers
Examples
When light meets a layer at angle of incidence
greater than the critical angle, it suffers total 1. The figure below shows a ray of monochromatic
internal reflection light incident at an angle of 500 on an

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 equilateral prism of refractive index 1.52.  Diminished
calculate the angles 𝑟, 𝑥 and 𝑒

GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION OF RAY

DIAGRAMS (USE GRAPH BOOK)

1. An object 2𝑐𝑚 high is placed 6𝑐𝑚 from a

convex lens with a focal length of 2𝑐𝑚. Find by
graphical method, the position and the size of
the image

2. Draw a ray diagram to find the position of an

image formed by a convex lens of focal length
15𝑐𝑚 if the object distance is 30𝑐𝑚
2. The diagram below shows a ray of light incident
at angle of 46.460 one side of an equilateral
3. By scale drawing determine the position, size
prism immersed in liquid of refractive index 𝑛
and the nature of the image formed by a convex
lens of focal length 10𝑐𝑚 when an object 2.5𝑐𝑚
high is placed at a distance of 15𝑐𝑚 from the
lens

4. An object 2𝑐𝑚 high is 40𝑐𝑚 from a convex

lens. Find the magnification and the size of the
image which is 20𝑐𝑚 from the lens

5. An object 2.0𝑐𝑚 tall is placed 8𝑐𝑚 infront of a

Given that the refractive index of glass is convex lens of focal length 12𝑐𝑚. Construct a
1.5. calculate ray diagram to determine the position of the
image and magnification produced

6. An object 20𝑐𝑚 high is placed 6𝑐𝑚 from the

IMAGE FORMED BY A DIVERGING
convex lens with a focal length 2𝑐𝑚. Find by
LENS (CONCAVE LENS)
graphical method the nature, position and size of
the image

7. An object 10𝑐𝑚 high is placed 30𝑐𝑚 from a

concave lens of focal length 15𝑐𝑚. Find the
nature, position and magnification of the image

DETERMINING THE FOCAL

The image is
LENGTH OF THE CONVEX LENS
 Virtual (a) Using a distant object
 Erect

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 A parallel beam of light falls on the prism

The prism disperses the white light

A parallel beam of each colour of light is

focused at different points on the screen

This forms a pure spectrum

The position of the lens is adjusted until a sharp COLOURS OF LIGHT

image of a distant object is formed on the screen There are two categories of colours of light
The distance between the lens and the screen is 1. PRIMARY COLOURS
measured Are colours that cannot be obtained by mixing
This is the focal length of the lens other colours of light

(b) Using an illuminated object Examples

 Red
 Blue
 Green

2. SECONDARY COLOURS
Are colours that are obtained by mixing two
primary colours

Examples

The position of the lens is adjusted until a sharp  Yellow = (𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛)
image of the cross wire is formed on the screen  Magenta= (𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒)
 Cyan = (𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛)

When all the three (3) primary colours are

PRODUCTION OF A PURE SPECTRUM
mixed, we form white light

This is illustrated using overlapping circle

A source of light is placed at the principal focus

of lens A

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 2. Charles’ law
3. Pressure law
Acronym BOYLE’S LAW
"𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒀𝒂𝒎𝒔 𝑮𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑩𝒂𝒅 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔" 𝑹𝒆𝒅 “The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to pressure at
constant temperature”
COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS
1
Is a pair of colors of light, one primary and the 𝑃𝛼
𝑉
another secondary which when mixed form
white light 𝐾
𝑃=
𝑉
Examples
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾
 𝑅𝑒𝑑 + 𝐶𝑦𝑎𝑛
 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 + 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 + 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
APPEARANCE OF OBJECTS IN Where
WHITE LIGHT
𝑃1 = Initial pressure
When white light falls on an object, either all the
colours in white light are reflected and the object 𝑉1 = Initial volume
appears white or only some colours may be
reflected while others are absorbed and the 𝑃2 = Final pressure
object appear coloured
𝑉2 = Final volume
When all colours are absorbed and none is
reflected, the body appears black

THE GAS LAWS

Examples
When temperature subjected to a fixed mass of a
gas enclosed in a container with a movable 1. A volume of a fixed mass of a gas increases
piston increase, the 𝑘. 𝑒 increases and the gas from 300𝑐𝑚3 to 500𝑐𝑚3 at a constant
molecules move faster increasing the rate of temperature. Find the new pressure if the initial
collisions of gas molecules with the walls of the pressure is 700𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
container which increases the pressure of the gas
and this pushes the piston thus an increase in 2. A mass of a gas occupies a volume of 20𝑐𝑚3 at
volume. This is summarized in three a temperature of 24℃ and a pressure of 1.0
fundamental laws called 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘𝒔 atmosphere. Calculate the volume when the
pressure is doubled
They include

1. Boyle’s law

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

3. A vessel contains 1000𝑐𝑚3 of air at 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔.
The air is allowed to expand to 1200𝑐𝑚3 at
constant temperature, calculate the new pressure

4. A given mass of a gas has a volume of 100𝑐𝑚3

at 75𝑁𝑚−2. At what pressure is it when the
volume is reduced to 60𝑐𝑚3

5. The pressure exerted by a gas of volume

0.024𝑚3 at room temperature is
4.2 × 105 𝑁𝑚−2 . Determine the pressure at
 Dry air is trapped above mercury in a closed
which the volume of the gas reduces to 0.019𝑚3
limb of a uniform cross sectional area, 𝐴
at the same temperature
 The difference, ℎ in the levels of mercury in the
closed and open limbs is noted
A graph of P against V
 The length, 𝑙 of the air column is noted
 The pressure of air is varied by raising or
lowering the open limb
 Different values of ℎ and 𝑙 are noted
 The pressure of air, 𝑃 = 𝐻 ± ℎ is calculate
1
 Values are tabulated including values of 𝑙
1
 A graph of 𝑃 against is plotted
𝟏 𝑙
A graph of 𝑷 AGAINST  A straight line through the origin is obtained
𝑽
 This shows that pressure is inversely
proportional to volume hence verifying Boyle’s
law

CHARLES’ LAW

“The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is

directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at a constant pressure”
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY
BOYLE’S LAW 𝑉𝛼𝑇
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑇

𝑉
=𝐾
𝑇
𝑽
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑻

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 OR
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝑨𝒏 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒔 is a gas with negligible
Where intermolecular forces of attraction

𝑉1 = Initial volume 𝑨 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒔 is a gas that does not obey gas laws
at all conditions
𝑇1 = Initial temperature
Examples
𝑉2 = Final volume
1. A bicycle pump contains 50𝑐𝑚3 of air at 17℃
𝑇2 = Final temperature and a pressure of 1.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎. find the pressure
Examples when air is compressed to 10𝑐𝑚3 and its
temperature raises to 27℃
1. A gas of volume 3𝑚3 at 27℃ is heated to
327℃. What is its new volume 2. A fixed mass of a gas occupies a volume of a
gas occupies a volume of 300𝑐𝑚3 at a
2. A gas of volume 1000𝑐𝑚3 at a pressure of temperature of 127℃ and pressure of
4.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎 and temperature 17℃ is heated 1000𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔. Find the new volume of a gas if
to 89.5℃ at a constant pressure. Find the new the pressure of 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 at a temperature of
volume of that gas 273𝐾
3. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas collected
at 91℃ s 0.02𝑚3 at normal pressure. 3. A gas of volume 1000𝑐𝑚3 at a pressure of 40 ×
Determine the volume when the temperature 105 𝑃𝑎 and temperature of 17℃. Find the new
drops to 0℃ at the same pressure volume of the gas at 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑝. (𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔, 𝑇 = 273𝐾)
4. The temperature of a fixed mass of a gas is
27℃. If the volume is halved, 4. The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at 17℃ is
(i) Find the new temperature 105 𝑃𝑎. Find its pressure at 27℃ if the volume is
(ii) State the assumption made halved
5. A litre of a gas at 0℃ and 10𝑁𝑚−2 pressure is
A graph of 𝑽 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝑻(𝑲) 1
suddenly compressed to 4 of its volume and its
temperature rises to 273℃. Calculate the
resulting pressure of the gas

NOTE
Standard temperature and pressure, 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑝
means normal conditions of temperature and
pressure at sea level
Standard pressure = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
Standard temperature = 0℃

MEASUREMENT OF HEAT ENERGY, 𝑸

𝑨𝒏 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒔 is a gas which obeys all the three
gas laws perfectly
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 HEAT CAPACITY, 𝑯 Examples

Is the quantity of heat required to raise the 1. The 𝑠. 𝑙. ℎ of ice is 336,000𝐽𝑘𝑔−1, what does
temperature of a substance by 1𝐾 this mean
2. The 𝑠. 𝑙. ℎ of steam is 2260,000𝐽𝑘𝑔−1, what
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
does this mean
𝑄 = 𝐻∆𝜃

𝑄 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC
𝐻= LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF
∆𝜃
STEAM BY METHOD OF MIXTURES
The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of heat capacity is
𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 (𝑱𝑲−𝟏 )

Examples

1. The heat capacity of a substance 𝐴 is 60 𝐽𝐾 −1 .

What does this mean

2. 1000𝐽 of heat supplied to a substance 𝐵 raises

its temperature by 5𝐾. Find the heat capacity
of 𝐵
3. The temperature of 𝐷 increases from 30℃ to
60℃ when the body is supplied with 1500𝐽 of
 A copper calorimeter of mass 𝑚𝑐 and 𝑠. ℎ. 𝑐, 𝑐𝑐
heat. Calculate the heat capacity`
is filled with water of mass, 𝑚𝑤 and 𝑠. ℎ. 𝑐, 𝑐𝑤
 The initial temperature, 𝜃1 of water is noted
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, 𝒄
 Dry steam is passed into the water for some time
Is the quantity of heat required to raise the  Water is well stirred and the final temperature
temperature of 1𝑘𝑔 of a substance by 1𝐾 𝜃2 of the mixture is noted
 The apparatus is weighed again and the mass,
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒔. 𝒉. 𝒄 × 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑚𝑠 of condensed steam is obtained
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
Heat lost = heat gained by + heat gained by
Therefore by stem water calorimeter
𝑄
𝑐= 𝑚𝑠 𝑙𝑣 + 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑤 (100 − 𝜃2 ) = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑚∆𝜃
𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) − 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑤 (100 − 𝜃2 )
The 𝑆. 𝐼 unit of 𝑠. ℎ. 𝑐 is 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 𝑙𝑣 =
𝑚𝑠
(𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏)

𝑠. 𝑙. ℎ of steam = 2260,000𝐽𝑘𝑔−1

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC giving out a large amount of latent heat which is
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION BY absorbed by the skin causing severe burn.
ELECTRICAL METHOD
Water loses a smaller amount of heat on cooling

THE REFRIGERATOR

This uses the principle of cooling by absorption

of latent heat of vaporization

 Water is poured into a beaker placed on a

beam balance
 The initial balance reading, 𝑚0 is recorded
 An electric heater of known power, 𝑃 is placed
into the water
 The heater is switched on and the stop clock is
started at the same time
 The water is heated until it boils
 After a time, 𝑡, the heater is switched off and
removed from water
 The final balance reading, 𝑚1 is recorded  A volatile liquid (𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑛) evaporates in the
 Mass of water evaporated 𝑚 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚0 evaporator surrounding the ice box
𝑃𝑡  Latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from air
 Specific latent heat of vaporization, 𝑙𝑣 = 𝑚 around the evaporator
Examples  The compressor (𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝) forces the vapor into
the condenser
Where necessary use  In the condenser, the vapor condenses releasing
latent heat of vaporization to the surrounding to
(𝑠. ℎ. 𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4200𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 , and
the surrounding by the cooling fins
𝑠. ℎ. 𝑐 of calorimeter= 400𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 )
 The liquid returns to the evaporator and the
1. A copper calorimeter of ass 60𝑔 is filled with process repeats
water of mass 100𝑔 at a temperature of 25℃.
Steam is passed into the water until a HOW IS FOOD COOLED IN A
temperature of 45℃ is attained. If the final mass REFRIGERATOR
This is because steam condenses on the body

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Air surrounding the ice box is cooled, becomes COOKING AT A HIGH ALTITUDE
denser and falls passing over the food on the
shelves and cool it At a high altitude, the atmospheric pressure is
very low.
 Warm air at the bottom rises to occupy the space
left by the falling cold air The 𝑠. 𝑣. 𝑝 becomes equal to the external
 A convection current is set up and cools the food atmospheric pressure at a lower temperature and
water boils below 100℃. Therefore food takes
WHY IS THE ICE BOX PLACED long time to cook because its boiled at low
AT THE TOP temperatures
The air around the ice box becomes denser and COOKING AT A LOW ALTITUDE
falls. If the ice box was at the bottom, dense air
cannot rise, it will stay at the bottom and food on At a low altitude, the atmospheric pressure is
the shelves rot very high.

BOILING AND FREEZING The 𝑠. 𝑣. 𝑝 becomes equal to the external

atmospheric pressure at a higher temperature
Boiling is the formation of bubbles throughout and water boils above 100℃. Therefore food
the liquid at a constant temperature takes little time to cook because its boiled at
higher temperatures
Boiling occurs at a constant temperature called
𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILING AND BOILING UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE

EVAPORATION
Water can be made to boil at a temperature less
BOILING EVAPORATION than 100℃. It is done by reducing the pressure
above it to less than the 𝑠. 𝑣. 𝑝 at that
 Occurs throughout  Occurs at the
temperature
the liquid liquid surface
 Occurs at a fixed  Occurs at any
temperature called temperature
boiling point
 Formation of  No bubbles are
bubbles formed
 Does not cause  Causes cooling
cooling

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE BOILING

POINT OF A LIQUID

1. Impurities
 Addition of impurities rises the boiling point of
a liquid The pump reduces the pressure above the water
to a value below 𝑠. 𝑣. 𝑝 at that temperature and
2. Pressure water boils

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 THE PRESSURE COOKER DEMONSTRATION OF
EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS
In a pressure cooker, the pressure of the steam is
set to build up to twice the normal atmospheric
pressure

This raises the boiling point of water to a higher

temperature above 100℃

This makes the food to cook faster because it is

boiled at a higher temperature

 The level of water in a narrow tube before

heating is noted
 The flask is heated and new water level is
noted
 It is seen that there is an increase in the water
level when heated which shows that water
expands when heated
THERMAL EXPANSION AND
CONTRACTION NOTE
Expansion is an increase in size of a substance in  Initially when the flask is heated, the water level
all directions when it is hot drops momentarily and then rises
Contraction is the decrease in size of a substance  This is because the flask first receives heat
in all directions when it gets cold before water and it expands which increases its
volume
THERMAL EXPANSION AND
CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS COMPARING EXPANSION OF
DIFFERENT LIQUIDS
This can be illustrated using a metal ball with a
ring

 Identical flasks are filled with different liquids

𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 The flasks are placed in a beaker containing hot MAGNETIC EFFECT ON AN ELECTRIC
water CURRENT
 After sometime, the liquid levels rise to different
A current flowing through a wire creates a
levels. This shows that liquids expand
magnetic field around it.
differently when heated even at the same
temperature The direction of a magnetic field around the
wire depends on the direction of current in the
ANOMALOUS (EXCEPTIONAL) wire. This is predicted using;
EXPANSION OF WATER
 For all solids expect ice, when heated, they 1. The right-hand grip rule
expand
If the wire is held in the right hand with the
 But ice melts to form water which contracts until
thumb pointing along the direction of current,
4℃
then the direction of the fingers is the direction
 Therefore water is exceptional or anomalous in
of the magnetic field
the range of 0℃ to 4℃
 Water has a maximum density at 4℃ 2. Maxwell’s screw rule

If the right handed screw moves forward in the

direction of current, the direction of rotation of
A graph of volume against temperature the screw is the direction of the field

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT

WIRE CARRYING CURRENT

1. Wire carrying current upwards (out of page)

2. Wire carrying current downwards (into the

page)
EXPANSION IN GASES

 A gas expands when heated

 The expansion of a gas is too great compared
to solids and liquids
 This is because gases have very weak
intermolecular forces

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 3. Two wires carrying current in opposite MAGNETIC SEPERATORS
direction
These are used to sort iron pieces from scrap
metals

 The electromagnet is positioned above the

conveyer belt carrying the scrap
 The pieces of iron are attracted to the
electromagnet when it is switched on

4. Two straight wires carrying current in the THE MAGNETIC RELAY

same direction
This enables one circuit to control another
 The electromagnet is set above the iron sheets circuit without direct electrical connection
and current is switched on.
 It magnetizes and attracts the iron sheets
 The crane lifts the sheets to a suitable place
 Current is switched off, magnetism is lost and
the sheets are left in the desired place

THE TELEPHONE RECEIVER

This changes electrical energy to sound energy

 The input circuit supplies current to the

electromagnet
 The electromagnet attracts one end of a soft iron
armature which is pivoted so that its other end
acts as a lever
 The sound causes a varying current in the
 The lever opens and closes contacts in output
microphone which passes through the coils of
circuit by a spring metal strip
the electromagnet and magnetizes it
 The electromagnet pulls the diaphragm towards
it by a distance which depends on the current
 The diaphragm vibrates at the same frequency as
the original sound
 This processes a copy of the sound wave that
entered the microphone
Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 FORCE ON CURRENT CARRYING MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER.
CONDUCTOR IN THE MAGNETIC
FIELD.

When a conductor carrying current is placed in a

magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical
force.

The direction of the force is predicted using the

Fleming’s left hand rule

The Fleming’s left hand rule

THE MOVING COIL LOUD SPEAKER

OPERATION

A current to be measured is let in and out

through the hair springs 𝑆1 and 𝑆2

When current passes through the coil, the

magnetic force on it makes it to turn together
with the pointer

The coil turns until the magnetic force on it is

balanced by the restoring force due to the
 A varying current from an amplifier flows tension of the hair spring
through the coil
The position of a coil is then the measure of
 This produces a varying electromagnetic force
current.
on the coil making it vibrate in and out
together with the cone The sensitivity of the galvanometer can be
 The cone sets the surrounding air to vibrate increased by
and reproduce a loud sound
 The cone vibrates at the same frequency as the 1. Increase in the number of turns of coil.
current 2. Using a stronger magnet with a high magnetic
flux
3. Using a coil of larger area
4. Using very weak hair springs

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER
INTO AMMETER.

A galvanometer is used to detect small currents

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 To convert a galvanometer to an ammeter, a low current to 1.0𝐴. find the value of the shunt to
resistance resistor called a shunt is connected be used
parallel with the galvanometer
5. A millimeter has a resistance of 20Ω and gives
a 𝑓. 𝑠. 𝑑 for a current of 2000µ𝐴. If the
galvanometer is converted to an ammeter
which can read up to 1.0𝐴. what is the size of
the extra low resistance

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO
VOLTMETER
I – current to be measured
This is done by connecting a resistor of high
𝑅𝑔 – Resistance of galvanometer resistance in series with the galvanometer. This
resistor is called a multiplier
𝑅𝑠 – Shunt resistance

𝐼𝑔 – Current thru galvanometer

Considering full scale deflection (𝑓. 𝑠. 𝑑) current

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑔 + 𝐼𝑠

Since is 𝑅𝑠 parallel to 𝑅𝑔 then 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉𝑠 Suppose that a full scale deflection

Applying ohms law 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 𝐼𝑔 – Maximum current through G
Example 𝑉 – 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝. 𝑑
1. A galvanometer of resistance 5Ω and 𝑓. 𝑠. 𝑑 𝑉𝑔 – 𝑝. 𝑑 across galvanometer
15𝑚𝐴 is to used to measure current up to
1.5𝐴. how should this be done 𝑉𝑚 – 𝑝. 𝑑 across multiplier

2. A galvanometer has a resistance of 20 ohms 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑔 + 𝑉𝑚

and gives the 𝑓. 𝑠. 𝑑 of 200𝑚𝐴
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
What is the voltage a cross the galvanometer
What resistance (shunt) must be connected But in series current is constant.( same current
across the galvanometer for it to read 10 A flows through the galvanometer and the
multiplier)
3. A galvanometer of resistance 10Ω reads
50𝑚𝐴 at 𝑓. 𝑠. 𝑑. what resistance must be 𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼𝑚
connected across the galvanometer to be
converted to an ammeter in order to read 4A Then 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑔 )

EXAMPLES
4. A galvanometer of resistance 4Ω and 𝑓. 𝑠. 𝑑
10𝑚𝐴 is to used for the purpose of measuring

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

1. A galvanometer of resistance 12Ω reads
200mA at . 𝑠. 𝑑 . What resistance must be
connected in series with it in order to read 8N.

2. A current of 0.2A passes through the

galvanometer of resistance 20Ω. What
resistance must be connected in series with G
to convert it to voltmeter in order to read 10V
at 𝑓. 𝑠. 𝑑.

The end of the coil is connected to a sensitive

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION galvanometer.

When a conductor (wire) moves across a Then a magnet is moved into the coil, the
magnetic field such that it cuts the magnetic galvanometer deflected showing that current had
field lines, am 𝑒𝑚𝑓 or current is induced in the been induced in the coil.
wire. This process is called electromagnetic
The magnet is pulled out of the coil; the
induction
galvanometer deflects in opposite directions.
Electromagnetic induction is a process where
an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is induced in a conductor when flux
linking it changes

Laws of electromagnetic induction

1. Faraday’s law

The strength of the induced 𝒆𝒎𝒇 is directly

proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linking it When the bar magnet is held stationary, the
galvanometer pointer gives no deflection
2. Lenz’s law
CONCLUSION.
The induced current flows in a direction so as
to oppose the change that causes it 1. The direction of induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 depends on the
direction of motion of the magnet.
Faraday’s experiment on electromagnetic
2. The magnitude of induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 depends on
induction
(i) Speed of motion of the magnet.
(ii) Number of turns of the coil.
(iii) Strength of the magnetic fields

DIRCTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

This is predicted using the Fleming’s right hand

rule (Dynamo rule)

Fleming’s right hand rule

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 If the thumb, first finger and the second finger of
a right hand rule are held at right angles

If the First finger points in the direction of the

Field, and the Thumb in the direction of
motion, then the Second finger will point in the
direction of the induced Current
When the switch is closed, an electric current
flow through the primary coil.

This increases magnetic flux and it cuts the

secondary coil and an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is induced in the
secondary.

Current flows in the secondary coil and the

galvanometer deflects

When the switch is opened, the magnetic flux

reduces and it cuts the coil. The galvanometer
deflects in opposite direction
MODIFICATION OF AC TO DC
This is called mutual induction. This process is
The ends of the coil are connected to
applied in transformers
commutators instead of slip rings.
SELF INDUCTION
MODIFICATION OF DC TO AC
Is where an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is induced in a coil due to
The ends of the coil are connected to slip rings
change in the magnetic flux linked with the coil
instead of commutators
itself
ADVANTAGES OF AC OVER D.C
It occurs in a coil with many turns
1. A.C can be transmitted over long distance at low
EDDY CURRENTS
power loss
2. A.C can easily and cheaply be stepped up and Are currents induced in a conductor when
down using a transformer moving in a changing magnetic field
3. 𝐴. 𝐶 is easy to generate.
Uses of eddy current
MUTUAL INDUCTION
1. Used in electric brakes of electric trains
Is a process by which an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is induced in a 2. Melting metals in electric furnace
coil due to the change in the magnetic flux
linked with the neighboring coil Disadvantages of eddy current

1. Causes power loss in transformers and motors

TRANSFORMERS

Is a device that steps up or step down voltage.

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified
 It is based on the principle of mutual induction PHYSICS 𝟓𝟑𝟓/𝟑 PRACTICALS
i.e. changes in the magnetic flux of the primary
coil induces an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in the secondary coil. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Metre rule
Measures length in cm to 𝟏𝒅𝒑
Transformers are divided into two e.g. 2.0 𝑐𝑚, 10.2 𝑐𝑚, 12.7 𝑐𝑚 etc
1. Step down transformers
2. Step up transformers 2. Stop clock
Measures time in seconds (𝑠) to 𝟏𝒅𝒑
STRUCTURE OF A TRANSFORMER e.g. 10.0𝑠 25.5𝑠, 16.0𝑠 17.5𝑠

Step up transformer 3. Stop watch

Measures time in seconds (𝑠) to 𝟐𝒅𝒑𝒔
Is a transformer that increases voltage e.g 12.43𝑠, 20.92𝑠, 16.73 etc
It has more number of turns in the secondary
coil than in the primary coil 4. Protractor
Measures angles in degrees ( o) to 𝟎𝒅𝒑𝒔
e.g. 100 , 240 , 290 etc.

5. Ammeter
Measures current in amperes (A) to 𝟐 𝒅𝒑𝒔
The last decimal value is 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
e.g 0.24𝐴, 1.40𝐴 , 2.20𝐴 𝑒𝑡𝑐

6. Voltmeter
Measures 𝑝. 𝑑 in volts (V) to 𝟐 𝒅𝒑𝒔 𝑶𝑹 𝟏 𝒅𝒑
Depending on the chosen scale

7. Electronic beam balance.

Measures mass in grams (g) to 𝟏 𝒅𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝒅𝒑𝒔.
e.g. 45.00𝑔, 158.00𝑔 𝑜𝑟 40.0𝑔, 34.0𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑐

UNITS AND SYMBOLS

 Units are stated using the right symbols.

 Abbreviation of units is not used e.g. Unit for
time is, (𝒔) NOT 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 Units named after Scientists are written with
capital letters. e.g. watts (W), joule (J) ampere
(A).
 Units must be written in brackets e.g.
𝑚(𝑘𝑔), 𝑡(𝑠), 𝐼(𝐴) 𝑒𝑡𝑐. NOT 𝑚/𝑘𝑔, 𝑡/𝑠,
𝐼/𝐴

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified

 Units of derived quantities are written using
Scientific notations e.g. m𝑠 −1 NOT m/s, kg𝑚−3
NOT kg/𝑚3 , Ω NOT V/A.
 𝒔𝒊𝒏, 𝒄𝒐𝒔, 𝒕𝒂𝒏, 𝒍𝒐𝒈 do not have units.
 Values of 𝒔𝒊𝒏, 𝒄𝒐𝒔, 𝒕𝒂𝒏, 𝒍𝒐𝒈, are written to
3 𝑑𝑝𝑠.

e.g. 𝑠𝑖𝑛300 = 0.500

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 = 0.301 𝑐𝑜𝑠300 = 0.866

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

All figures are significant except zeroes

in-front of non-zero digits. E.g. 0.0002 all
those zeroes in-front of 2 are not significant

GENERAL GUIDELINES

Float:

A float is a constant number. e.g 𝜋,

2, 10, 20 𝑒𝑡𝑐

1. Division and multiplication with a float.

Significant figures of a measured value are to be

used. e.g.

If 𝑡 = 14.2𝑠 and n=20 If 𝐼 = 2.46𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑡 1 1
𝑇 = 20
=
𝐼 2.46 ( 3𝑠𝑓𝑠)

14.2 ( 3𝑠𝑓𝑠)
= = 0.406504065 (𝑐𝑎𝑙)
20 (𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡)

= 0.71 ( 𝑐𝑎𝑙 ) = 0.407𝐴−1 (3𝑠𝑓𝑠)

= 0.710𝑠 (3𝑠𝑓𝑠)

2. Addition and subtraction with a float

Decimal values of a measured value are to used.

If 𝑥 = 14.2𝑐𝑚 then 10 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠;

10 + 𝑥 = 10 + 14.2( 1𝑑𝑝)

= 24.2 (𝑐𝑎𝑙)

= 24.2 𝑐𝑚 (1𝑑𝑝)

Kaye 0753885879 Mwogeza 0704416689 Ntezirizaza 0703042039 O’level Physics Simplified