COURSE TITLE TOURISM IMPACTS

COURSE CODE MTTM-10

ASSIGNMENT CODE MTTM 10/MTM 10/TMA/2021

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 MTTM 10 : TOURISM IMPACTS
COURSE CODE: MTTM 10 2021

Note: This TMA consists of ten questions, out of which you have to attempt any five.
The question carries 20 marks each and should be answered in about 500 words. Send
your TMA to the Coordinator of your Study Centre.

1. Describe global characteristics of tourism impacts. Give suitable examples.

INTRODUCTION
A.W. Williams and Gareth Shaw in their book Tourism and Economic Development: European
Experiences (Sussex 1998), observed:

“Tourism is a highly internationalised industry subject to globalisation tendencies, as is evident

in respect of the media images which help shape the tourist gaze, and growth of multinational
tourism companies. While most tourism involves activities within national borders, and few
tourists have time and money to engage in a genuinely global scan of tourism destinations,
globalisation processes are affecting even the most localised of tourism patterns. Not the least,
they shape the expectations of tourists, and intensify place competition.”

Today, tourism is being talked about at practically all international forums (Economic, political or
cultural). In fact, it has thrown up its own international organisations from all sections of the
tourism players. Being the largest industry of the world international business goes on, travel
markets are held and with extensive use of Internet tourism now products and services are
marketed directly to the consumers at a global level. One estimate puts one out of every nine
workers in the world employed in the tourism industry. As per the WTO Tourism Highlights
2000:

“Tourism clearly counts as one of the most remarkable economic and social phenomena of the
last century. It undoubtedly will keep this position for the century to come. Every year a bigger
portion of the world population takes part in tourism activity and for the majority of countries
tourism has developed as one of the most dynamic and fastest sectors of economy.”
CONCEPT
The world has seen tourism as a challenge to enhance opportunities for both tourists and
residents. From 25 million in 1950, to 620 million in 2000, tourism has often been called the
fastest growing industry. Today the volume of international tourist arrivals is twenty times that
of the 50’s. International tourism has had a spectacular growth in the last three decades of the
twentieth century. It gained phenomenal proportions after the Second World War. However,
tourism growth is unequally spread over different regions as the top ten tourist destinations do
not feature any Asian destination except China and the top ten earners from tourism do not
feature any Asian destination except Hong Kong. The growth rate for the period 89-90 to 94-95
was affected by the economic recession in America, Europe and East Asia. Though a revival has
taken place, until the year 2005, the growth rate of tourism is expected to stabilize at 4.2%. Long
Haul travel is forecast as the growing element, while short and medium haul are likely to
stagnate. The WTO pegs the growth rate of international tourism at 3.6%. This estimates 977
million tourists by the year 2010. Whilst tourist arrivals and departures continue to be
concentrated in Western Europe and North America, the East-Pacific region has emerged as the
fastest growing destination area in the past decade. Interestingly, the first half of the 90’s saw
a slowing down of the growth of tourism, with the Asian region again showing uneven results.
East Asian and the Pacific grew at a faster rate and South Asia stagnated. In some countries
there was a negative rate of growth. As WTO data indicates, all regions of the world are likely to
be involved in this phenomenal activity. The economic impact is great, but it has two aspects:
costs and benefits. The Economic importance of tourism is also widely appreciated, but again
uneven. 83 countries count tourism as one of its top 5 foreign exchange earners. 38 countries are
totally dependent on tourism earnings. 8% of total export earnings on goods and services
worldwide are contributed by tourism. Tourism receipts, including airfares, topped the list of
exports at $532 billion. Economic indicators like Growth in GDP, reduction of inflation and
volume of Trade are signs of a continued growth and expansion of tourism, but they do not
necessarily mean that all countries will benefit from this forecast. However, the forecasts for
tourism depend heavily on the state of the U.S. economy, the conflicts that continue to disturb
peace and the role of oil prices which can create inflationary pressures. There are a number of
key factors that have highlighted mass tourism as the fastest growin g industry in the world.
Increasing leisure time as a consequence of economic growth in industrialized countries; lifestyle
and work related changes, like flexi-time, working from home, part time workers etc;
technological changes, particularly in the civil aviation sector and communications, that have
increased reliability and reduced costs, to ensure the accessibility of world tourism to the middle
class. Significant demographic changes have been observed, due to better health facilities, for
older citize ns and retirees in most affluent societies, as well as the impact of globalization and
liberalization of the world economies, and the retreat of socialism in the USSR and Eastern
Europe. This has resulted in a unipolar world, leading to the breaking down of ideological
barriers and a growing awareness of and interest in other cultures, ways of life, habitats,
heritage and the environment. Travel, which has been one of the “freedoms” of the market
economies, continues to be dominated by the leaders of the market economies. As industry has
slowed down and the old economy is being replaced by the new economy, the growth in the
services is reflected in the increasing importance of international tourism as well. Although mass
tourism was a phenomenon of the post Second World War period, and the United Nations
declared it a developmental sector at its Rome Conference in 1968, the Lome Conference of least
developed countries in 1975 did not identify tourism as a support to economic development for
African, Caribbean and Pacific countries. Lome II acknowledged the role of tourism in rebuilding
war-ravaged Europe. It was only at Lome III in 1985 that tourism was given priority and since
then there has been no going back
CONCLUSION
Global Characteristics
1 Tourist Arrivals
2 International Tourism Receipts
3 Tourism Generating Markets
2. Which type of economic analysis is done to measure the impacts of travel and
tourism development?
INTRODUCTION
At many destinations tourism is the main source of income for the local residents. Land use
and cropping patterns have also been affected. For example, in many cases agriculture land is
converted for making resorts; exotic vegetables are grown to meet tourist requirements, etc.
Tourisms’ local benefits, when well planned and managed, could improve standards of living
of residents. Tax revenues generated by tourism could be used to improve community facilities
like schools, hospitals, roads, and watershed management and energy requirements, etc.
Improvements in infrastructure could open new opportunities for local residents. Other
economic sectors like agriculture and fisheries and crafts could be stimulated. Conservation of
local heritage, nature, arts and crafts can be paid for by tourism. However for these benefits to
be realized, self-determination by the largest number of local residents is required. However in
tourism short term dynamics are more usual than the participative process, which can be
painstakingly slow. Co-determination of the indigenous and immigrant communities is a
prerequisite if tourism is to realize its benefits. The role that local inhabitants wish to play,
active or passive, has to be discussed with them at every stage.
CONCLUSION
In spite of the benefits like job creation, infrastructural development and better facilities
tourism can also and at many destinations it does, generate negative economic impacts. High
prices, shortage of water and electricity, over crowding, etc. affect the economy in a big way.
These factors also generate tensions within the host population and also between the
residents, tourism service providers and tourists. Another issue of concern at the local level is
the dominance of outside players who siphon out the tourism earnings from the locality. This
also has led to tensions.
3. Write an essay on “Local Agenda 21’.
INTRODUCTION
Increasingly, governance all over the world is becoming decentralized. Decision-making is also
becoming localized. The current approach, linking eco-tourism to local development has been
extended to cover heritage conservation as well. The 1992 World Summit at Rio promoted the
Agenda 21 giving local government and authorities the undisputed responsibility for
sustainable development. For tourism, the Local Agenda 21 has been an important policy
support to encourage local control over tourism development and its benefits. The UNCED
Conference in 1992 adopted the Agenda 21, ratified by 182 governments. Given the estimated
importance of tourism to world trade and the economy with an output of $3.4Billion, creating
employment for 211 million, producing 10.9% of the world gross domestic product and
investing $693.9 billion in new facilities and $ 637 billion in tax revenues (WTTC, 1995), it
would be an important area for sustainable policies and practices. However, Travel and
Tourism found only a reference in a few Chapters, for example:
•In Chapter 11 (Part II, 27) it is prescribed that governments should “promote and support the
management of wildlife and…eco-tourism”,
• In Chapter 17 (Part II, 134) it is stated that” coastal states should explore the scope for
expanding recreation and tourist activities based on marine living resources”, and
• Chapter 36 (Part IV,24) advocates “that countries should promote, as appropriate,
environmentally sound leisure and tourism activities….making suitable use of museums,
heritage sites, zoos, botanical gardens, national parks and other protected areas.”
CONCLUSION
The down side of the local Agenda-21 argument is that niche sectors like National Parks,
protected areas and fragile ethnic communities are coming under increasing pressure. These
pressures include the need to develop tourism infrastructure and facilities, the carrying capacity
of local communities, tour operators’ demands of events and services, the pressure for
recreational opportunities of local citizens and domestic tourists who have become outdoor
oriented. The question raises an important empowerment issue. If nature sells, should the
“correct” use of resources for the development of a region include eco-tourism? As exploration of
the world has reached the farthest corners, new products and destinations are moving into
areas that did not have a tourist friendly image in the past. Perhaps that was the protection they
needed. However, now that phase is over. It is already possible to book organized treks to the
highest mountain peaks. Since 1985, 45 tourist submarines and 96.2 million passengers have
participated in underwater viewing or deepsea tours. Cultural tours, like viewing the wreck of
the Titanic have also started operating. Antarctica has already found itself to be a tourist
destination receiving 10,000 visitors in 1999. Eco-tourism, which ranges from highly focused
study tours to large numbers of resort tourists making day trips or short photographic invasions
to nature reserves in vacation periods, is now generating some $20 billion per year. Eco tourists
now constitute 20% of the international market. The new tourist will want maximum thrills in
minimum time, being poor in leisure time but rich in money. Tourism to the Amazon, the Sahara
and the Artic are just beginning to open up local communities at the far ends of the earth to
tourist activity. Thus, the local Agenda 21 becomes important for tourism development along with
the concern for tourism impacts.
4. Discuss the social and economic issues that have emerged because of the relationship
between tourism and crafts.
INTRODUCTION
Tourism offered an experience with artisan’s in their life surroundings – result of nostalgia of the
urbanites search for heritage and something original, authentic or unique. With the emphasis on
tourism, Government support for the souvenir industry is growing, with the setting up of Craft
villages, Fairs and Festivals like the Suraj Kund Crafts Mela. Here the projection is on the master
crafts persons or National Award winners. Every year there is a theme state, which is also
projected for its arts and crafts. The products are limited with an eye on the domestic consumer.
The products for the export market are qualitatively different. NGOs have also played a role in
shifting the design and use of artisan production from local use to market value addition. Urmul
and Dastakar are examples of such efforts. Apart from dalit craft and art, we also see the
emergence of tribal production being marketed in urban centres. We must evaluate whether this
shift has been of real benefit to the artisanship of the communities and then judge the role of
tourism in its conservation. Since Tourism is often considered an invisible export, it is assumed
that because tourists spend 26% of their total budget in India on shopping, the major benefit
flows to the handicraft sector. When we begin to assess the impact on craft producing
communities there are several problems. The communities are scattered all over the country and
their size is small. The barter economy or the traditional rights to raw material that these
communities possessed have become insufficient to sustain them in the market economy arena.
They need a cash income to cover food, education and health costs even if they don’t have the
money to consume other products that are now visible in urban centres. The village Haat is now
full of products from other regions and other forms of production. These products often cost less
than the crafts they are replacing. In some cases, craft production is unable to access the all-
India market with the rising cost of transport. The two-way movement is not bringing the value
addition to craft production, which is facing extinction because of the changing tastes of the
village communities. Liberalisation is also bringing in cheap crafts from abroad to compete with
local production. It is interesting to see how wall hangings and wall painting, which were an
essential skill of women in the community, have been displaced with changing building materials
and value systems. In Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra and Bihar, these traditions have been
transferred to paper. Fewer families are participating in these crafts and individuals are fighting
to keep their family skills alive. These are areas where export production has not been able to
find a market. Modernism has laos replaced this art with Calendar Art. Gallery Art, whilst using
certain motifs has moved away from the village artist to the urban artist painting in new
mediums and with a different sensibility. Many schools of traditional Painting like Bundi,
Basholi, Kangra, etc. have also gone out of fashion. It is only the antique value that sells, not
current production. As the pride of heritage becomes more saleable, the United Nations had
promoted, by declaring 1993 the Year of Indigenous People, the use of tourism not only to
preserve but also to make heritage profitable for those who have been ignored in the tumult of
development. Indigenous tourism, according to Valene Smith (Tourism and Indigenous Peoples,
ed. Butler and Hinch) has four elements: Habitat, Heritage, History and Handicrafts. This is to
be described as a cultural tourism form, reflecting the man-nature relationship. At tourism sites
around the world the relationship will vary, since the 4H’s will be operating within a specific
cultural context.
CONCEPT
The native handicraft industry has responded to tourism-increased demand, both domestic and
international. There is not only increased output but an array of new items, which are based on
the culture and life style of the tourist rather than custom and tradition. However, there is
always a constraint. Handicrafts depend on the unique raw materials that each region provides
its crafts persons. Traditional skills relate to these unique mediums and the forms are also
determined by survival needs and the inspiration is from belief systems. The North East with its
Bamboo forests has always been the home of basketry. Horticulturists who needed storage
utensils refine pottery. Textiles, weaving and silver ornaments appear among trading
communities. Extinction of raw materials or animals from which certain materials were drawn
can also put a constraint on handicrafts, as for example the ban on ivory to save the elephant
population of the world. Urban designers have put crafts to multiple uses and created non-
indigenous arts, which is considered both a conservation movement as well as value addition in
the market sense. Commercialisation has led to the transformation of ceremonial objects into
items of jewellery and adornment. Pottery in the form of glasses and ashtrays is another form of
adaptation to the “carry away” market. Coconut shells have also replaced pottery since they are
more durable. Bastar burial items have become tribal sculptures. Warli motifs adorn textiles,
sculptures and doorknobs. A new form of value addition has emerged through tourism. This is
the use of minimal raw materials with the maximum of skilled labour to give a product of high
value and marketability. As a result handicraft prices have risen as they have become
miniaturised. Tourism has given this exposure to crafts persons as well as non-indigenous
markets. However, tourism creates its own constraints. For example, crafts should be such that
they can be easily carried by air; they should be durable and priced according to their size; they
must be certified as hand made and authentic. The trinket form of craft production is to be seen
wherever tourist buses stop. At every tourist spot there are shacks selling the “wholesale”
version of traditional trinkets. Crafts persons perform at these locations, by stringing, printing
and weaving to give a touch of authenticity to what is being bought by the tourist. They can be
photographed by the tourists for greater satisfaction. Handicrafts have always been the source
of income, in cash or in kind, for the artisan. With the entry of the merchant they began to enter
the wider field of trade. Whereas they were traded as luxuries in the old days, today they are
being wholesaled through the demand of tourists and the export market. The issue of cultural
integrity has become an important aspect of the social impact of tourism and the craft industry is
most affected. Since tourism is the industry of “difference”, the problem of authenticity can affect
the marketability of the very commercialisation and miniaturisation that tourism had demanded
at an earlier stage. The pressure of tourism to maintain maximum diversity while at the same
time to standardise and homogenise are paradoxical tendencies, which are likely to affect the
handicraft industry. This does not simply degrade the quality of the product; it causes changes,
which are often meaningless. When tourist tastes change, the markets for these meaningless
productions also change. Artisans and Crafts-persons share certain characteristics which neither
Tourism nor the Export markets have been able to improve. For example they:
CONCLUSION
•hold subordinate positions in national societies,
• occupy marginal and often inhospitable territories or locations in the economy,
• are vulnerable and often live in poverty,
• have subsistence economies,
• are culturally marginalized,
• are maladjusted due to forced migration from rural to urban areas, and
• often bear the consequences of threatened ancestral habitats, which can reduce their access to
raw materials.
5. What do you understand by guest-host interaction? Also discuss related issues.
INTRODUCTION
It was only from the 1970s that researchers got attracted towards what is now termed as the
“sociology of tourism”. Valine Smith, De Kadt, MacCannel and may other scholars looked at
various aspects from the impact of mass tourism to the impacts on societies having tourists from
other different structural societies. Erik Cohen distinguished five major theoretical points of
departure to the sociological study of tourism, i.e., the sociology of:

•stranger,
• leisure,
• hospitality,
• travel,
•religion.
CONCEPT
Cohen further mentions six interrelated trends that can be distinguished in the development of
the sociology of tourism:

1) “Critical attitude to tourism as a kind of aberration”

2) “Study of tourists as a product of (modern) society to the study of (modern) society through
tourism”.
3) An ‘etic’ attitude to ‘emic’, i.e., from outside to inside,
4) “From concerned with individual psychological motives for tourism to a growing
preoccupation with tourism” in the context of “expressing significant social symbols”,
5) Giving up of general categories like tourist and tourism to “a growing awareness of the
significant differences between a wide variety of types of tourists and touristic processes”. This
includes “the differential impacts on the host and their environment, economy and society”,
6) Shifting from general findings “to studies devoted specifically to the investigation of tourism
as a field of enquiry in its own rights
According to Pierre L. van den Berghe (Cultural Impact of Tourism, 1994), “If tourists are by
definition not at home, they are strangers among strangers, and indeed, frequently savour that
mutual otherness as a key ingredient of the tourism experience. Tourism inescapably involves
contact between groups of people who might otherwise not meet, and who differ on one or more
dimensions of social class, religion, language, ethnicity, or race. Tourism, thus, must be seen as
a special form of culture contact, of race and ethnic relations, and of the class relations, all
phenomena of central interest to sociologists and anthropologists.” Pierre has mentioned seven
properties of tourist-host interaction which make it a unique case of understanding social
relations. These according to him are:

1) Asymmetrical interactions: These are because of the following two vital dimensions:

a) The higher status of the tourists compared to the hosts not only in relation to “first world
tourism in third world countries, but is also obvious in much internal tourism within rich
countries”. According to him, though all tourists are not wealthier than the locals but “nearly all
tourist-host interaction takes the form of an unequal relationship between consumers of sights,
spectacles, and services, and those who provide these commodities either simply by being there,
making a spectacle of themselves, or by making a living from tourism. Egalitarian interaction
between tourist and host is rare.” \

b) Asymmetry of useful knowledge: This cuts across in the opposite direction to that on the
status. According to him, “The host has the great advantage of being on home turf and, thus,
knowledgeable of local conditions, prices, sights, services, and so on. That knowledge, pitched
against tourist ignorance, can be turned to profit. The tourist, on the other hand, faces the option
of either learning fast or being “taken”.”

2) Ephemeral interactions: The tourist-hosts interactions generally are unlikely to be repeated.

This brings in an attitude of “mistrust, cheating, and broken contracts”. According to him, “both
sides have limited expectations of each other where immediacy of the exchange is considered
the best substitute of nonexisting trust.” In fact, both sides may express surprise when not
cheated by each other

3) Segmented and instrumental interactions: According to him these interactions are “entered
into for specific, limited and immediate purposes and they are not expected to have far reaching
or long lasting consequences”. However, one can question these hypotheses of Pierre in relation
to impacts.

4) Vulnerability to faulty communication: Since these interactions are conducted across linguistic
and cultural barriers “in the absence of mutually understood norms and expectations” in certain
delicate matters they can generate misunderstandings.

5) Cultural distance: This determines the barriers to interactions between the two.

6) Crude stereotypes: The interaction between the two takes place within the framework of the
perceptions of each side about the other.

7) Profitable and enjoyable interactions: According to Pierre, because the mutual expectations
are low and the interactions are carefully bracketed in both time and space, they are found to be
profitable and enjoyable.

6. What is cultural tourism? Differentiate between the real and the staged forms in
cultural tourism. Give suitable examples.
INTRODUCTION
When we discuss the issue of cultural tourism we have to inform ourselves of the shift from the
normative (good/bad/negative/positive) nature of the debate on the links between culture and
tourism, to the interventions of the sociology and anthropology of tourism. Researchers have
accepted the difficulty in determining the role of cultural attractions in tourism. How many views
of a culture people can have is a vital question. Is it the quality of the hotel, the air connections
and the availability of air-conditioned cars that determines the popularity of a destination (say,
the North Indian Golden Triangle) or its cultural components

Valene Smith (1972) has suggested a five-fold typology:

1) Recreational or sun lust tourism
2) Environmental tourism
3) Historical tourism
4) Ethnic tourism
5) Cultural tourism
CONCEPT
Valene Smith defines cultural tourism as “including the picturesque or local colour, a vestige of
the vanishing lifestyle that lies within human memory with its old style houses, homespun
fabrics, traditional transport and technology and handmade crafts… this is the peasant culture,
illustrated by the case studies of Bali and Spain”. Ethnic tourism is defined by its direct focus on
people living out a cultural identity whose uniqueness is being marketed for tourists; tourists are
interested in the cultural practices, which define a unique ethnicity as for example the Western
Himalayan Buddhist enclaves. Cultural tourism on the other hand defines situations where the
role of culture is contextual, where it shapes the tourists experience, without a focus on its
uniqueness. It emphasises artefacts rather than concrete cultural activities of people. Ethnic
tourism and cultural tourism thus have boundaries which maybe crossed by the presenter in
formulating tours or staging performances. According to James Clifford, “Culture is a coherent
body that lives and dies. Culture is enduring, traditional and structural (rather than contingent,
syncretic, historical). Culture is a process of ordering, not disruption. It changes and develops
like a living organism. It does not normally survive abrupt alterations.” For him, cultural identity
is an ongoing process, politically contested and historically unfinished. It is always mixed,
relational and inventive. Cultural concepts are used by ethnic groups to interpret themselves to
themselves, to one another and to the other.

Let us see how this links to Third World cultures

The reason this is so has to be understood. When we look historically into the phenomenon of
tourism, we often confuse indigenous forms of travel, whether for economic or religious reasons,
with tourism. However, tourism as we know it today is essentially a modern Western
phenomenon. When we began to look at the possibilities of development through tourism as an
agency, we invited Sir John Sargent to develop a thrust for India to enter the world market. In
1949, Sargent and then Allchin recommended that a region with almost continental diversity of
languages, religions, ethnic groups and cultures as well as a monumental heritage that dated
back to antiquity, should theme its tourism activity around cultural forms and attractions. For
the first two decades after Independence, India had a tourist landscape that was centred on the
Mughal architecture and mountains that had fascinated the British colonizers. It was after the
advent of mass tourism, and low cost package tours that “local colour” tourism to Rajasthan and
other agrarian states began to develop. It is only today that we have begun to look south, to its
Temple towns, medieval ruins, natural attractions and wild life. A similar trend can be observed
in the form of tourism that the Asian elites are participating in today, courtesy package tours.
The changes that have occurred in their motivations, roles and institutional structures indicate a
cultural transformation that reflects a relationship between tourism and modernity. It is from
this relationship that the concern with authenticity has arisen. Dean MacCannell coined the term
“staged authenticity” to describe the artful presentation of cultural forms and symbols at sites,
as for example, the Son-et-Lumiere as historic forts. Such staging was seen to be creating a
“tourist space” which separated the sphere of tourism from the flow of local life. In this
separation space, height, temperature, lack of sounds and smells, enclosure and encapsulation
led to an extreme cultural space, i.e., the “tourist bubble”. The tourist was caught in a trap in the
process of the transformation of travel from the religious quest into a secular quest. To break out
of this trap there emerged the growing concern with alternative tourism, spearheaded by the
Ecumenical Movement for socially and culturally responsible tourism. Cohen called this
movement the “counter- culture” alternative. This was a kind of travel that studiously avoided
the route of mass and packaged tourism.

POST-MODERN TOURISM CULTURE

The issue between the mass and the counter mass movement was one of salvation, or the
Transformation of the Self, through the touristic experience, by engaging with the “Other” on
equal terms. This would help to reach a territory beyond the limits of the tourist space, as for
example the Golden Triangle, compared to the authentic experiences like the Kumbh Mela. This
form of tourism is said to be sustainable with low impact on the environment and resources of
the destination. Its success depends on low frequency, remote locations and low numbers. The
more sensitive the natural and cultural environment, the greater is the chance of even
alternative tourism creating a “tourist space”. This can be seen in the rapid decline and cultural
degeneration of Jaisalmer, which could not survive the onslaught of tourism and the continued
prosperity of Jaipur as the Pink City of tourism, where the tourist space enlarges as the
environmental and cultural features become less and less authentic. A number of studies have
focussed on post-modern tourism and culture, which have emerged from the restructuring of
capitalism and the resulting cultural shifts in tourism types and tourist motivation. The question
that we are concerned with is whether there is acceptance or resistance to mainstream tourism
from the other post-modern tourism. The consumption of services and experiences is said to have
an important symbolic meaning and to play an important role in helping to establish and
maintain social differentiation and social distinction amongst the middle classes. The new
middle class has an important role in producing and consuming new forms of travel, particularly
to the Third World. There is some interest, therefore, in attempting to trace a relationship
between post-modern culture, class fractions and tourism. Urry suggests the concept of “real”
holidays, which involves a spatial separation of real holiday travellers from mass packaged
tourists. These two distinct forms then involve the emergence of specialist agents and tour
operators. They are needed to create more individual and flexible holidays for the first category,
which is called ‘new’ tourism, along with other mass and package market agents and operators
to cater to the ‘old’ tourist. This distinction reflects consumer reaction to being part of a mass. To
be flexible, more personalised and customised is to get away from the tastelessness of the mass
product. There is also a sense of exclusiveness in the ‘designer’ holiday as against the
‘conventional’ holiday. A title like the Magic of the Orient reflects convention whilst trekking in
India and Nepal reflects the ‘extra dimension’ through Macro Polo Holidays. What then is the
‘real’ traveller in comparison to the ‘mass’ tourist? The real reflects the desire amongst the
middle class for authenticity, for honesty, and more truthful tourism. The mass tourism brochure
is traditionally glossy with large, colourful pictures showing sunny beaches, palms and loving
couples with very little text. The emphasis is on the image of paradise. The other brochure can
be recycled paper, containing line drawing or ethnic artefacts, some black and white
photographs and a text that speaks for the authentic. For example, it could say, tropical
destinations have ants, mosquitoes and cockroaches, which are harmless but can be a
nuisance. This indicates the sensitivity of the industry towards the consumer, who imagines he
is a 21st century adventurer, explorer or traveller. Secondly, in addition to the more honest
approach to the holiday there can be a marriage of activity and academic interests such as
anthropology, environment or archaeology. Industry representatives like The International Eco
Tourism Society have expanded their operations to Third World destinations like Nepal, Thailand
and South America in response to the new consumer. The WTO and the WTTC have also put the
new consumer in the foreground by developing environmental impact analysis and sustainable
production and consumption.

7. Analyze current status of wildlife tourism in India. What are the problems of wildlife
tourism in India?
INTRODUCTION
WILDLIFE TOURISM IN INDIA

Wildlife Tourism is a crucial element in wildlife protection. It is the tourists who can be potential
force of wildlife conservation and conversely it is also tourists who can adversely affect a
wilderness area through excessive pressure on fragile eco-system. It is upto the developer and
the tourists to the wilderness to decide which path they want to pursue. Although the term ‘eco-
tourism’ is used often, this can’t become a reality without the active participation of the tourists.
Lot many precautions are regularly taken, yet when ‘development’ reaches wilderness, it brings
along with it many imbalances to the wildlife. Impacts on wildlife resulting from development
can be classified into two general categories

1) Impacts resulting from increased human use of the area,

2) Impacts resulting from different levels of surface – disturbing activities, such as, road
construction or mineral development.

Human presence bring along with them vehicles, vehicular pollution and noise, boats, planes
and general disturbance. For example, animal who normally forage along the river corridor
during the summer would move to other areas if the presence of additional humans, boats or
planes disturbed them. Also animal life is likely to be destroyed to protect human life. However,
it takes time, some years for any impact to be noticeable. For example, poaching and hunting
have led to the extinction on Indian Cheetah, but it took a long time for the impact to be
noticeable. Development in general has an adverse impact on most species of wildlife by
displacing them from habitat. Moreover, the clamouring for the development of tourist related
facilities in itself present significant threats to fish, wildlife and wilderness value. One tends to
forget that it’s the wilderness, which is allowing us to experience itself and go overboard on the
mission of development. Take the example of now fragile environment of Annapurna region of
Nepal. Ever since mountaineering and trekking became a popular Western pastime in the 1970s
and 1980s, the Annapurna range has been a focus for many of the estimated 2,00,000 annual
visitors that Nepal receives most of whom come from Europe, Canada and Japan. One-third of
these visitors are estimated to trek into the area each year, outnumbering the local population by
a ratio of two-to-one (Annapurna Conservation Area Project, 1993). What they have left behind in
a fragile environment, which can barely sustain its own local inhabitants, is a world
increasingly blighted by their presence. In January 1994, a conservationist with the Annapurna
Conservation Area Project pointed out that:

“70,000 visitors a year may not seem a lot of people compared with the number of tourists to
other places. But for an environment like the Annapurnas, with its delicate ecological balance
between human presence and natural resources, it is rapidly becoming 70,000 visitors too
many”.

The negative environmental impact is obvious to any sensitive visitor to the area. The poor,
native villages scattered along the main valley to the mountains have now been complemented
by numerous guesthouses and lodges, which continue to be built every year. These are almost
entirely constructed of wood from the surrounding forests, and the need to feed and heat
thousands of visitors has led to further encroachments on scarce resources. The resulting soil
erosion is evidenced in the large swathes of terrain that have literally been washed away by the
heavy monsoon rains. The statistics make disturbing reading: 96 per cent of Nepal’s energy
comes from the forests. Current figures show that these are disappearing at the rate of 3 per
cent every year. One hectare of cleared forest loses 30-75 tons of topsoil annually. In Nepal as a
whole, approximately 4,00,000 hectares are cleared each year, resulting in devastating
landslides and floods as water sweeps off the unprotected mountains. The lodges in one small
village along the major Annapurna trekking route consume one hectare of virgin rhododendron
forest each tourist season to service the needs of their foreign visitors. The strain on local
systems of waste management and disposal has also proved overwhelming. Litter lies in
scattered piles on the outskirts of villages or strewn along the banks of rivers. Trekkers and
mountaineers bring many non-biodegradable items into the valley such as beer cans, tins and
wrappers. It has been calculated that if the number of plastic bottles imported into the area each
year were placed end to end they would reach the peak of the highest mountain in the
Annapurnas. Annapurna Region’s fragile eco-system supports both wildlife and humans and its
imbalance is affecting both. (Source: unrisd.org/engindex/publ/list/dp/dp53/dp53.07.htm)
Similar cases are being observed world over. For example, according to some conservationists,
the tourist carrying capacity for some of the fragile park eco-systems in Zimbabwe has already
been exceeded. Studies have shown soil compaction caused by trampling and vehicles in
several parks, which has led to increased water run off, erosion and changes in vegetation.
Excessive trampling of vegetation by walking, photographic and hunting safaris may affect plant
diversity and lead to the loss of several species, cautioned one geographer (Heath, 1989:39). As
in several of the Kenyan national parks, observable changes have also been noted in animal
behaviour. Loss of ground cover, changes in water quality and increased noise have disrupted
mating and feeding habits. Some animals have begun to rely upon food supplements acquired
through campsite raids. This is already evident among the honey badger, hyena and elephant
populations at the Mana Pools National Park in Northern Zimbabwe. Whether due to increased
familiarity with humans or irritation due to their presence, attacks by crocodiles, hippopotami
and buffalo along the Zambezi River has also been witnessed in recent years. In several cases,
this has led to the shooting of animals, which have become too persistent. One bull elephant in
Mana Pools recently had to be shot due to its habit of overturning cars in search of oranges
(Interview, park officers, April 1993).

The site overlooks Maho Bay Beach, on the North Coast of St. John. It is a steep hillside property
that rises 100 metres in just 600 metres. Below is a crescent of white sand beach fringed in
places with coral reefs, supporting endangered turtles and abundant marine life. Conventional
building techniques could cause devastation to the beach and reef as if the ground cover was
destroyed or the site disrupt the heavy seasonal rains would wash topsoil into the ocean, silting
and smothering the coral. So, elevated walkways were constructed to protect the rare vegetation
at Maho Bay from pedestrian traffic and avoid erosion. The 5 m × 5 m “tent cottages” were also
sited above the ground within the existing trees and plants. The elevated stairs and walkways
connected these dwellings. The project was called Maho Bay Campground. The only permanent
ground cover disturbance was the postholes for the columns that supported the walks and
structures. Construction materials were wheeled along the walks and carried into place. Pipes
and electrical cables were hidden under the walks rather than buried in trenches. The finished
walkways flowed naturally through the trees and foliage. Guests walked safely from their tent
cottages to the beach without trampling the ground. People fit comfortably into this natural
setting. The 114-unit campground won the 1978 Environmental Protection Law Award, was
featured in the New York Times Travel Section, and attracted the travel programmes of major
cultural and environmental groups. It seems that the developers anticipated the growing market
for “eco-tourism”. Maho Bay is now one of the most profitable and highly occupied resorts in the
Caribbean. In fact, its so popular that, long ago, they suspended most of their advertising
programmes. And after more than 15 years of operation and almost one million guest days, the
property has been restored to a healthier wildlife and horticultural habitat than before it was
developed. Recycling the water supply account for much of this. Each year the camp use and
reuse over four million litres of fresh water for drinking, washing, and flushing. The treated
water is then used to irrigate the hillside. From a distance one can hardly see the 120 structures
hidden in the trees. This sensitive land use stimulated massive free publicity with attendant
high occupancy. Thus, tourism concerning wildlife should be planned in such a way that it aids
the cause of wildlife conservation and generate interest in their long-term survival. The
government has already laid down certain guidelines in this regard. There is need is to promote
‘eco-tourism’ taking into account the carrying capacity of the area and fragility of the eco-system
concerned. There are all round efforts being made both at the government and the non-
government level to educate the people about the importance of wildlife conservation. Some of
the measures taken in this regard have already been mentioned in this Unit. The need is to
make this programme more broadbased and people-oriented. As such it is almost imperative to
give greater support to grass root organisations. The World Tourism Organisation has published
“Guidelines for the Sustainable Development and Management of Tourism in National Parks and
Protected Areas ”. In order to “disseminate sustainable practices in the development and
management of eco-tourism” WTO continues to organise seminars.

WILDLIFE STRATEGY – PROBLEM AREAS

a) The strategy of conservation by a network of protected areas and specific animal conservation
projects itself has some major problems.

•The protected areas, national parks and sanctuaries do not have adequate infrastructure and
manpower to monitor vast forest tracts.

• The displacement of tribals and other forest people from the demarcated areas has not
augured well for the health of the forests and wildlife. The displaced tribals have either been
rehabilitated in the neighbouring forestlands or continue to derive their livelihood from the forest
by aiding the poachers or smuggling wildlife and forest products. Some experiments in the joint
forest management areas have shown that the tribals can be successfully incorporated in any
programme of forest and wildlife management.

• The protected areas account for only 4% of India’s total landmass and as such there is a
massive depletion in the biological health outside these protected areas. Perhaps it has rightly
been said that “islands of diversity is surrounded by oceans of devastation”.

b) The tendency to treat forests and wildlife as separate entities and as such separate
legislations often accounts for the lack of a coherent comprehensive policy. There is thus the
need for a broadbased wildlife strategy.

c) A great deal of emphasis has been put on the ‘big game’. Big mammals and other animals
have received a great deal of attention in our wildlife programmes while many species of plants
and microorganisms have been neglected.

d) The state has failed to respond effectively to the new problems like insurgents and terrorists
taking shelter in forests and increased instances of poaching and smuggling of wildlife products.

e) There are many species of wildlife that have not been documented yet. Fear is being
expressed that they may be lost to mankind forever even before getting detected.
f) The Wildlife Protection Act, though a protection act does not protect species enumerated under
Schedule V.

8. Discuss the tourism potential of islands and beaches of India. Give suitable examples.
INTRODUCTION
Oceans and Seas have attracted humankind since ancient past. It has been of special interest
for landlocked mainland people, for them beach and Island seems to be the gift of nature. They
get amused by the 114 sight of immeasurable water body and want to enjoy and play with this
nature’s gift which can not be created artificially. In India Oceans have been revered as god and
sight of sea has been considered auspicious. If we look back at events of Ramayana, Lord Ram
worshipped Indian Ocean while seeking passage to reach Lanka. Several important places of
pilgrimages are located on the banks of Ocean. Of the four most important places of pilgrimages-
Dham, three are located on the banks of Oceans, i.e., Dwarka Puri, Jagannath Puri,
Rameshwaram. However, the growth of beach and Island as tourism product began in the 18th
century. The medicinal property of mineral water available at particular places seems to have
encouraged development of beach and Island as tourist product. To further increase the
popularity of these tourist spots several other facilities were introduced. Attempts were made to
develop these places for non-medicinal visitors also. With the revolution in the means of
communications and transportation by the second half of nineteenth century the popularity and
accessibility of these places increased remarkably. The improved means of communication and
especially transportation the accessibility of these places became possible for round the year.
The significance of improved means of transportation on growth of tourism can be gauged by the
following example: Accepting the delivery of the first 747 in 1959, the wide-bodied jet which Pan
Am had been instrumental in commissioning from the Boeing company. Juan Tripp, Pan Am’s
founder and chairman, spoke of the potential impact of international tourism as being more
powerful than the atom bomb. Since then, the equivalent of a quarter of the world’s population
has travelled abroad and the consequences can be seen in the development of airports, hotels
and resorts in most countries of the world. At the same time the changes in the living patterns
after the industrial revolution and especially after Second World War can not be overlooked.
Increased purchasing power, confinement to urban centres and resultant alienation from nature,
greater leisure time, better possibilities of travel and greater number of tourist product have
influenced the choice of tourist product. Now tourist wants to explore the exotica of nature, hence
greater emphasis be placed on the development of the beach and Island tourism.
CONCEPT
As far as the choice of islands and beaches as tourist destinations are concerned, we may study
them under two sets of factors; general and specific. Among the general factors we may cite:

i) General relaxation – Two of the most preferred destinations include mountains and beaches.
Proximity also accounts as one of the factors.

ii) Pilgrimage – This may not be true for all beaches but is particularly true for Puri and the Lord
Jagannath Rath Yatra.

iii) Love for water and sand– People fascinated with sand, sunshine and water. iv) Naturalists
Botanists and Zoologists – Students and scientists studying marine ecosystems, endemic
species, tropical forests, corals etc. may opt to go to Andaman and Nicobar or Lakshadweep
islands.

v) Watersports – Like scuba diving, snorkelling, deep sea diving, rafting, water surfing attract
many sports enthusiasts to islands and beaches. Other sports like golf etc. attract tourist
attention.
CONCLUSION
There are certain factors however very specific to island destinations. While talking of islands
specially, scholars tend to attach certain ‘exclusiveness’ to these destinations. Butler while
talking of small islands highlights some universally appealing features like physical
separateness, political independence, cultural differences and attractive climate and
environment. History, customs, hospitality and a sense of isolation feature regularly in tourist
marketing and advertisements. Other ‘fascination factors’ include remoteness, access to
abundant water and the influence that water has a geo-physical and the cultural environment, a
sense of adventure, a particular way of life often at a slower pace than that of the mainland and
a preserved culture and language
9. How have hills become tourism attractions? What are the impacts of tourism on
mountain environment?
INTRODUCTION
MOUNTAINS AND HILLS
Hills and mountains have occupied an important place since ancient times, when they were
considered abodes of gods. Sages and hermits would meditate and hence lot of reverence and
divinity was attached to them in the Indian context. Some like Kailash, Meru, Kishkindha,
Govardhan, Vaikuntha were particularly sacred. The modern concept of hill stations which
transcends religious connotations and makes them commonly accessible owes much to British
endeavours. It aros e with the expansion of European imperialism in the Orient in the nineteenth
century. The French established Da Lat in Indo-China, the Spanish built Bagnio in Manila and
the Dutch founded several similar centres in Indonesia. But no colonising power built more
stations than the British in India. Their rapid growth was due to the real relief they provided
from the heat and disease of the plains in summer, while later, after the struggle of 1857, they
offered a place of refuge from the reality of life on the plains below. Not all hill stations were
established in a uniform manner. Most of the earliest stations were originally built as army
cantonments and were meant to give European troops a breather from the pre-monsoon heat.
Some of the more remote cantonments like Chakrata and Jalapahar lingered on in isolation
while other more accessible ones attracted civilian attention and soon flourished as social and
educational centres. The resorts nearer to large administrative centres also usually attracted
local patronage. Thus, Ooty was summer capital for Madras, Murree for Rawalpindi, Nainital for
Lucknow, etc. Others were popular with a particular clientele, e.g., Kotagiri acted as a magnet
for planters and box-wallahs, Mussoorie attracted high-spirited young military cadets out for a
good time, and Shimla was the preserve of the top military and civilian personnel. Even the
down-market stations enjoyed specialised patronage as Ranikhet catered principally to the
signals and armoured corps and Almora drew survey, railway and telegraph staff. Madanapalle
attracted mainly pensioned native officials, while Matheran served as a destination for wealthy
Parshi merchants. Kodaikanal was not established by the British but by ailing American
missionaries. But two things were particularly there – firstly, hill stations attracted people from
nearby or surrounding areas, maybe due to transport problems and secondly, that they had a
loyal devoted clientele in the sense that visitors would visit the same place year after year. The
change, from hills catering to the affluent and the influential few to regular holidaymakers, was
in part, a product of improved transport and communication networks. Other factors like
increasing knowledge and awareness of hill stations, aggressive marketing by tourist agents,
leisure time and availability of disposable income also played an important part.
CONCEPT
IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT
While dealing with the impacts certain things should be borne in mind:

a) Tourism does not necessarily have a negative impact, in many cases particularly in the
economic field, it promises a huge growth potential. Having said that any analysis of the
impacts has to be done with a long term agenda. In an strictly cost-benefit analysis the short
term gains of tourism might be neutralised by long term losses.

b) Environment primarily does connote the physical ecological environment but a comprehensive
analysis of the possible impacts would also involve treatment of the local society and economy
of the region. The impacts thus generated are overlapping, e.g., ecological impact could well spill
into the socio-cultural or economic impact.

c) Generally speaking, however, it is the unrestrained mass tourism which leaves a trail of
disasters. Eco-tourism or sustainable tourism on the contrary, are being projected as having
positive ramifications.
d) There are certain determinants (discussed subsequently) which influence the tourist-impact
relationship. Purpose, profile, duration, etc. condition the possible impacts of tourism on the local
environmenT
 Impact Determinants
 Ecological Impacts
 Socio-Cultural Impacts
 Economic Impacts
10. Write Short notes on the followings: 10 x 2=20
a) Code of Ethics
A code of ethics is a guide of principles designed to help professionals conduct business
honestly and with integrity. A code of ethics document may outline the mission and values of
the business or organization, how professionals are supposed to approach problems, the
ethical principles based on the organization's core values, and the standards to which the
professional is held.
A code of ethics, also referred to as an "ethical code," may encompass areas such as business
ethics, a code of professional practice, and an employee code of conduct. Business
ethics refers to how ethical principles guide a business's operations. Common issues that fall
under the umbrella of business ethics include employer-employee relations, discrimination,
environmental issues, bribery, insider trading, and social responsibility. While many laws
exist to set basic ethical standards within the business community, it is largely dependent
upon a business's leadership to develop a code of ethics. Both businesses and trade
organizations typically have some sort of code of ethics that their employees or members are
supposed to follow. Breaking the code of ethics can result in termination or dismissal from the
organization. A code of ethics is important because it clearly lays out the rules for behavior and
provides the groundwork for a preemptive warning.
b) Sources of Tourism Law.
The existence of what we term as tourism laws today can be traced back in history from the
most ancient times in practically all the civilisations. Many ancient texts refer to traveller’s
accommodation and facilitation, laws about the functionings of sarais, state officials
responsibilities towards travellers, tariffs, etc. However, today we have more complex laws
that have emerged not only because of the complex nature of the industry but also because of
varied government attitudes, existence of varied government departments, tourism awareness
and so on. Tourism laws are derived from a variety of sources. For example, in United States
51 different sources (states and federal government) contribute towards tourism law. These
include federal and state constitutions, common law, administrative law, treaties and statutes.
Similarly, in India the Union list, Concurrent list and State list, all have elements related to
tourism though tourism is not specifically referred to anywhere. For example, emigration laws,
aviation, archaeological sites and monuments, shipping, highways etc. come under the union
list; protection of wild animals and birds, forests, etc. form part of the concurrent list whereas
domestic pilgrimage, theatres etc. form part of the state list. Different laws have come up at
different intervals of time as regards these themes. There is no such law that encompasses all
aspects of tourism though the demand for one has been picking up. It has been argued in fact
that “legislation on tourism seeks to define in clear unambiguous terms the rights and
responsibilities of its various segments vis-à-vis the user and viceversa and to provide for le
gal protection of the rights and enforcements of the responsibilities thus defined” (Mishra and
Ravindran, 1998).