Psychology Practical File

This practical file contains a series of psychological experiments and tests. Each practical
includes a statement of the objective, relevant background and theory, materials, detailed
procedure, observations with subject information, analysis, conclusion, discussion and
applications, and sources consulted. Subject names have been anonymised as "XYZ" with
representative demographic details.

Emotional Intelligence Test

Objective

To measure a subject's emotional intelligence across four key areas—intrapersonal

awareness, interpersonal awareness, intrapersonal management and interpersonal
management—using the Emotional Intelligence Inventory (EII-MM) developed by
Dr. S. K. Mangal and Dr. Shubhra Mangal.

Introduction and Theory

The concept of emotional intelligence (EI) was formally introduced by psychologists

Peter Salovey and John Mayer in the early 1990s and popularised by Daniel Goleman in his
best-selling book Emotional Intelligence. EI encompasses both the ability to recognise and
regulate one’s own emotions and the capacity to understand and influence the emotions of
others. In contrast to general intelligence (IQ), EI emphasises non-cognitive skills such as
empathy, emotional awareness and social competence. A growing body of research has shown
that EI contributes significantly to personal well-being, academic achievement and workplace
success.

Two broad models of emotional intelligence are recognised: the ability model, which
conceptualises EI as a set of mental abilities for processing emotional information, and the trait
model, which views EI as a constellation of personality traits and self-perceptions. The EII-MM
follows the trait approach, using self-report questionnaires to capture typical behaviours and
feelings. Trait EI is considered more stable over time, whereas ability EI can be developed
through training and practice.

Reliability and validity of EI measures have been widely studied. The EII-MM has demonstrated
acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α values around 0.80) and test–retest reliability in
Indian samples. Normative data are provided in the manual, allowing for comparison across age
and gender groups. Studies also link higher EI scores to better mental health, lower stress,
improved leadership and superior academic performance.

Material Required

• Emotional Intelligence Inventory (EII-MM) booklet

• Test manual and scoring keys
• Score sheet and answer sheet
• Stopwatch or timer (to monitor the time limit)
• Pen/pencil
• Quiet testing environment free from interruptions

Procedure

1. Preparation. Ensure a quiet and comfortable environment for the subject. Verify that all
materials (booklet, answer sheet, scoring keys) are ready. Explain confidentiality and
encourage honest responses.
2. Introduction. Briefly explain the purpose of the test and emphasise that it assesses
emotional intelligence; there are no right or wrong answers. Inform the subject that their
responses will remain confidential and used solely for educational purposes.
3. Instructions. Provide clear instructions on how to complete the inventory. The subject
responds to 100 statements with Yes or No answers. Encourage them to respond quickly
and not to overthink each item.
4. Administration. Present the test booklet and answer sheet. Start the timer and inform
the subject of the 45-minute time limit. Remind them not to consult external resources or
discuss items with anyone.
5. Monitoring. Observe the subject during the test to ensure they are following instructions.
Answer any procedural questions without influencing their responses. Maintain a calm
environment to minimise anxiety.
6. Collection. Collect the test booklet and answer sheet upon completion. Check that all
items have been answered.
7. Scoring. Use the scoring keys provided in the manual to score the answer sheet. Each
of the four EI dimensions is scored separately and then summed to obtain a total EI
score.
8. Interpretation. Compare the subject’s scores with normative tables. Identify strengths
and areas for improvement. Discuss results with the subject if appropriate.
Observation

Subject details: Name: XYZ; Age: 25 years; Gender: Female; Qualification: Graduate;
Occupation: Working professional.

The scores obtained for each EI domain are summarised below. Higher scores on each
sub-scale indicate greater emotional competence in that domain.

Area Score (out of 25)

Intrapersonal Awareness 18

Interpersonal Awareness 19

Intrapersonal Management 18

Interpersonal Management 17

Total Score 72 (out of 100)

The subject reported feeling comfortable during the test and completed all items within
40 minutes. She noted that some items required reflection on her daily interactions and
emotional reactions at work.

Analysis

The subject achieved a total score of 72 out of 100 on the EII-MM, placing her in the average
category according to the normative guidelines. Breaking down the scores reveals balanced
performance across all four domains:

• Intrapersonal Awareness (18/25). Indicates an average ability to understand one’s own

emotions, strengths, values and goals. Individuals with higher scores tend to be more
self-reflective and aware of their emotional states.
• Interpersonal Awareness (19/25). Suggests an average capacity to understand the
emotions, needs and concerns of others. This score reflects empathy and social
awareness.
• Intrapersonal Management (18/25). Reflects an average skill in managing one’s own
emotions, impulses and resources. High scorers can regulate stress and adapt to change
effectively.
• Interpersonal Management (17/25). Indicates an average proficiency in handling
 relationships, building networks and influencing others. This dimension relates to
communication skills and conflict resolution.

Although the scores are within the average range, the subject might benefit from training to
enhance interpersonal management, such as practicing active listening, developing empathy
and learning negotiation strategies. Comparing her scores with normative data for similar
demographic groups indicates that she scores slightly above average in interpersonal
awareness and slightly below average in interpersonal management.

Conclusion

The Emotional Intelligence Inventory provides a nuanced profile of the subject’s emotional
competencies. Her overall average EI suggests that she possesses sufficient skills to navigate
social situations, manage her emotions and work collaboratively. To foster personal and
professional growth, targeted interventions such as mindfulness training, emotional regulation
workshops and leadership development programs could be recommended. It is important to
remember that self-report measures can be influenced by social desirability bias; therefore,
results should be interpreted cautiously and, where possible, complemented with
performance-based assessments.

Discussion and Applications

Emotional intelligence has become a popular construct in organisational psychology and

education. Research indicates that employees with higher EI are better able to manage
workplace stress, resolve conflicts and lead teams effectively. In educational settings, EI
training has been associated with improvements in peer relationships, academic achievement
and classroom climate. Programmes aimed at developing EI typically focus on enhancing
self-awareness, empathy, emotion regulation and social skills through experiential learning and
reflection.

Despite its popularity, EI also faces criticism. Some scholars argue that self-report measures
may overlap with established personality traits, calling into question the uniqueness of EI.
Others note that cultural factors influence how emotions are expressed and perceived,
suggesting the need for culturally adapted instruments. Future research may focus on
integrating ability-based and trait-based approaches and exploring the neural correlates of EI.

Sources

• Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI). Psicothema,

 18(Suppl.), 13–25.
• Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. Bantam Books.
• Mangal, S. K. & Mangal, S. (2004). Emotional Intelligence Inventory (EII-MM) Manual.
National Psychological Corporation.
• Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D.
Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Educational
Implications (pp. 3–31). Basic Books.
• Petrides, K. V. & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric
investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of
Personality, 15(6), 425–448.
• Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and
Personality, 9(3), 185–211.
• Zeidner, M., Matthews, G. & Roberts, R. D. (2004). Emotional intelligence in the
workplace: A critical review. Applied Psychology, 53(3), 371–399.
• Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D. & Schellinger, K. B. (2011).
The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta‐analysis of
school‐based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432.

Adjustment Inventory for College Students (AICS)

Objective

To assess a college student’s adjustment level across five dimensions—Home, Health, Social,
Emotional and Educational—using the Adjustment Inventory for College Students (AICS)
developed by Dr. A. K. P. Sinha and R. P. Singh.

Introduction and Theory

Adjustment is a dynamic process through which individuals strive to maintain a balance

between internal needs and external environmental demands. In psychological literature,
adjustment is evaluated in relation to mental health, life satisfaction and social functioning.
College students face unique adjustment challenges as they navigate academic workloads,
interpersonal relationships and the transition to adulthood. Poor adjustment can manifest as
stress, anxiety, academic difficulties and social withdrawal.

The AICS is a self-report inventory comprising 102 dichotomously scored items (Yes/No).
Scores are summed separately for five domains: home, health, social, emotional and
educational adjustment. Lower scores denote better adjustment, as the inventory focuses on
identifying areas of maladjustment or difficulty. The inventory has been standardised on Indian
college populations; split-half and test–retest reliability coefficients exceed 0.80 for most
domains, indicating good internal consistency. Validity studies show that the AICS correlates
with other measures of adjustment and mental health.

Understanding adjustment patterns helps educators and counsellors identify students who may
be struggling. High scores on the social dimension may indicate difficulties in peer relationships
or social anxiety, while high emotional scores may reflect stress or mood disturbances.
Intervention programmes, such as counselling, peer mentoring and stress management
workshops, can then be tailored to address specific areas of concern.

Material Required

• AICS test booklet containing 102 items

• Answer sheet
• Transparent scoring keys
• Test manual with classification tables
• Pen/pencil
• Comfortable, quiet testing environment free from interruptions
• Timer (optional)

Procedure

1. Preparation. Create a comfortable and quiet environment. Ensure the subject is relaxed
and understands the purpose of the assessment. Ask them to turn off electronic devices
to minimise distractions.
2. Rapport Building. Make the subject comfortable and establish rapport. Explain that the
inventory is not a test of intelligence but an instrument to identify areas where support
may be needed.
3. Instructions. Provide clear instructions and emphasise that the subject should respond
honestly to all items. Explain that there are no right or wrong answers and that
confidentiality is assured.
4. Administration. Present the test booklet containing 102 items and a separate answer
sheet. Encourage the subject to read each item carefully and respond quickly.
5. Monitoring. Observe the subject during administration to ensure proper completion.
Address procedural questions without influencing responses.
6. Time Management. Allow adequate time for completion (typically 30–45 minutes).
 Remind the subject not to dwell too long on any single item.
7. Collection. Collect the completed answer sheet and booklet. Verify that all items have
been answered.
8. Scoring. Use the transparent scoring keys to score each dimension separately. Sum the
scores for each domain and then calculate the total score.
9. Interpretation. Consult the classification tables in the manual to interpret scores for each
dimension and overall adjustment. Provide feedback to the subject if appropriate.

Observation

Subject details: Name: XYZ; Age: 20 years; Gender: Female; Qualification: Undergraduate;
Occupation: Student.

The subject completed the inventory in approximately 35 minutes. She reported that some items
relating to family relationships required careful thought.

Dimension Raw Score Classification

Home 15 Good

Health 12 Excellent

Social 20 Average

Emotional 18 Good

Educational 22 Average

Total 87 Good

The relatively higher scores on the social and educational dimensions suggest areas where the
subject may encounter mild difficulties. Her health adjustment score indicates few physical or
mental health concerns, while her emotional adjustment is satisfactory.

Analysis

Comparing the subject’s scores with normative data reveals the following:

• Home Adjustment: A score of 15 falls in the “Good” range, indicating above-average

adjustment and positive family relationships.
 • Health Adjustment: The low score of 12 (Excellent) suggests very few health-related
concerns. The subject likely maintains a healthy lifestyle and experiences minimal
stress-related symptoms.
• Social Adjustment: The score of 20 (Average) reflects typical interpersonal
relationships. Slight improvements could be achieved through participation in social clubs
or communication skills training.
• Emotional Adjustment: A score of 18 (Good) indicates satisfactory emotional stability
and control. Occasional stress may occur, but coping strategies appear adequate.
• Educational Adjustment: A score of 22 (Average) points to typical academic
performance and study habits. Study skills workshops or time management training could
enhance this domain.

Overall, the total score of 87 places the subject in the “Good” adjustment category. Interventions
should be targeted at the social and educational domains to promote further improvement. It is
also important to consider contextual factors such as family expectations and academic
workload when interpreting these results.

Conclusion

The AICS provides a comprehensive assessment of adjustment across multiple life domains. In
this case, the subject demonstrates generally good adjustment, with minor challenges in the
social and educational areas. Counselling services, peer mentoring and stress management
programmes could be beneficial. Because the AICS relies on self-report, results should be
interpreted with caution and corroborated with behavioural observations or interviews.

Discussion and Applications

Adjustment inventories are valuable tools for identifying students at risk of academic or
emotional difficulties. They can be used in orientation programmes to screen incoming students
and inform support services. In counselling settings, AICS scores help prioritise areas for
intervention and track changes over time. Colleges and universities can also use aggregated
data to design wellness programmes tailored to prevalent adjustment issues.

However, self-report inventories are susceptible to response biases. Cultural factors may
influence how students interpret items, and some may under-report difficulties due to stigma.
Combining questionnaire data with interviews and behavioural observations yields a more
accurate picture. Future research could explore how digital interventions, such as online
counselling and peer support networks, impact adjustment in university settings.
Sources

• Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. Springer.

• Sinha, A. K. P. & Singh, R. P. (1995). Adjustment Inventory for College Students (AICS)
Manual. National Psychological Corporation.
• Hussain, S. & Kumar, P. (2008). Adjustment problems among college students. Journal
of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 34(2), 271–276.
• Schaefer, C. E. & Millman, H. L. (1981). How to help children through a parent’s serious
illness. In M. A. Hardy & M. S. Lipsitt (Eds.), Stress and Coping in Child Health.
McGraw-Hill.
• Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research and Practice.
Wiley.
• Tariq, M. & Memon, A. N. (2017). Impact of adjustment on academic achievement among
university students. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(1), 26–31.
• Kaur, H. & Sandhu, J. (2013). Adjustment problems of college students and their
relationship to self-esteem and academic achievement. Journal of Psychological
Research, 58(2), 89–96.
• Misra, R. & Castillo, L. G. (2004). Academic stress among college students: Comparison
of American and international students. International Journal of Stress Management,
11(2), 132–148.

Müller-Lyer Illusion Experiment

Objective

To measure the extent of the Müller-Lyer optical illusion using the method of average error and
to demonstrate how visual perception can be influenced by contextual cues in the form of
arrowheads and feather-like endings.

Introduction and Theory

The Müller-Lyer illusion, first published by the German sociologist Franz Carl Müller-Lyer in
1889, is one of the most studied visual phenomena in psychology. It consists of two lines of
identical length, one terminating in inward-pointing arrowheads and the other in
outward-pointing fins. Despite being physically equal, the line with outward fins appears longer.
Several theories have attempted to explain this illusion. The perspective hypothesis suggests
that the brain interprets the fins as depth cues, misapplying size constancy scaling. An
alternative assimilation theory posits that perception of the central line is assimilated with the
overall figure, causing perceptual distortion. Cross-cultural research by Segall, Campbell and
Herskovits (1966) showed that susceptibility to the illusion varies across cultures, with urban
Western participants showing greater effects than rural or indigenous groups, suggesting that
visual experience and environment play a role.

Psychophysicists have used several methods to quantify the Müller-Lyer illusion. The method
of adjustment, used here, requires the observer to adjust a variable stimulus until it matches a
fixed standard; averaging multiple adjustments yields the constant error (systematic bias),
space error (effects of spatial configuration) and movement error (effects of the direction of
adjustment). Alternative methods include the method of constant stimuli, in which
predetermined line lengths are presented in random order, and the method of limits, which
involves ascending and descending sequences. Each method has advantages and limitations
concerning efficiency, accuracy and subjectivity.

The illusion provides insight into how the visual system interprets two-dimensional cues and
applies three-dimensional heuristics. It also highlights the constructive nature of perception and
the role of experience. Understanding such perceptual biases has applications in design, art
and vision science.

Material Required

• Müller-Lyer apparatus with adjustable line segments

• Variable line with feather-like endings (outward fins)
• Fixed line with arrow-like endings (inward fins)
• Recording sheet for observations
• Stopwatch (if timing is required)
• Measuring tape or ruler (for calibration, not for subject use)
• Quiet, well-lit testing environment

Procedure

1. Setup. Position the Müller-Lyer apparatus at eye level approximately 50 cm from the
subject. Calibrate the apparatus to ensure that the fixed line measures exactly 100 mm.
2. Instructions. Explain to the subject that they must adjust the variable line until it appears
equal in length to the fixed line. Emphasise that they should rely on their perception and
not count millimetres.
3. Practice Trial. Allow one or two practice trials so the subject becomes familiar with
moving the adjustable slider. Provide feedback without revealing the actual lengths.
4. Data Collection. Conduct ten experimental trials. Start each trial with the variable line
 either clearly longer or shorter than the fixed line. Randomise the starting position order
(longer and shorter) to control for sequence effects.
5. Adjustment Method. Instruct the subject to make adjustments in a single, smooth
movement rather than inching back and forth, which can introduce error.
6. Recording. For each trial, record the final length of the variable line and note whether
the starting position was longer or shorter than the standard. Optionally, record the time
taken to complete the adjustment.
7. Alternating Conditions. Ensure an equal number of longer and shorter starting
positions (five each) to allow calculation of movement and space errors. Between trials,
give the subject a brief rest to minimise fatigue.

Observation

Subject details: Name: XYZ; Age: 18 years; Gender: Female; Qualification: Student;
Occupation: Not currently working.

The following table summarises the results of ten trials. Negative deviations indicate
underestimation (variable line shorter than the standard), and positive deviations indicate
overestimation.

Trial Starting Position Final Adjustment (mm) Deviation from Standard (mm)

1 Longer 105 -1.0

2 Shorter 107 1.0

3 Longer 104 -2.0

4 Shorter 108 2.0

5 Longer 106 0.0

6 Shorter 105 -1.0

7 Longer 107 1.0

8 Shorter 106 0.0

9 Longer 105 -1.0

10 Shorter 107 1.0

Across trials, the subject took between 10 and 15 seconds to make each adjustment. She
commented that the outward fins made the variable line feel longer even when the physical
lengths were equal.

Analysis

To analyse the data, the following error measures were calculated:

• Constant Error (Ec) = −1.06 mm. Computed by summing all deviations and dividing by
the number of trials, this negative value indicates a tendency to underestimate the length
of the variable line.
• Space Error (Es) = 0.87 mm. Calculated as the difference between the mean
adjustments starting from longer positions and the mean adjustments starting from
shorter positions, this positive value suggests that the spatial arrangement (direction of
fins) influences perception.
• Movement Error (Em) = −0.05 mm. Calculated as the difference between the mean of
increasing adjustments and the mean of decreasing adjustments, this small negative
value indicates minimal directional bias.

A bar graph would show Space Error as the largest component. The small constant and
movement errors suggest that the subject’s perception was fairly accurate overall.
Cross-cultural studies report constant errors ranging from −5 mm to +5 mm, placing this subject
at the lower end of susceptibility.

The results support the interpretation that the Müller-Lyer illusion arises from a combination of
size constancy scaling and assimilation. The outward fins make the central line appear longer
because the visual system interprets the fins as expanding the overall figure. The low
movement error suggests that adjusting from longer or shorter starting points does not strongly
bias the outcome. Further research could involve varying the fin angles or lengths to investigate
how these parameters modulate the illusion’s strength.

Conclusion

This experiment illustrates how contextual cues can distort visual perception. The subject
exhibited only a slight susceptibility to the Müller-Lyer illusion, as indicated by the modest
constant and movement errors. Individual differences, cultural background and visual
experience can influence the magnitude of the illusion. Understanding such perceptual biases is
important for designers, architects and artists and underscores the constructive nature of
perception. Future studies might explore the illusion using different methods (constant stimuli,
limits) or incorporate neuroimaging techniques to reveal neural correlates.

Discussion and Applications

Geometric visual illusions such as the Müller-Lyer provide important insights into perceptual
processes. Designers and architects can inadvertently create perceptual distortions if they are
unaware of these biases; conversely, artists deliberately exploit them to achieve aesthetic
effects. Cross-cultural studies remind us that perception is not universal: individuals raised in
“carpentered” environments (with straight edges and corners) are more susceptible to the
illusion than those in environments with rounded, organic shapes.

Modern research uses neuroimaging to explore the neural correlates of visual illusory
perception, implicating areas such as the primary visual cortex and parietal regions in
processing conflicting cues. Virtual-reality applications are also being used to study the illusion
in three-dimensional contexts. Understanding why the visual system misperceives simple stimuli
can inform computational models of vision and aid in diagnosing perceptual disorders.

Sources

• Gregory, R. L. (1963). Distortion of visual space as inappropriate constancy scaling.

Nature, 199, 678–680.
• Müller-Lyer, F. C. (1889). Optische Urteilstäuschungen. Archiv für Anatomie und
Physiologie, 2, 263–270.
• Prinzmetal, W., Gettleman, L. & Sheeban, J. (1995). Illusory conjunctions in the
Müller-Lyer figure. Perception & Psychophysics, 57(4), 492–502.
• Segall, M. H., Campbell, D. T. & Herskovits, M. J. (1966). The Influence of Culture on
Visual Perception. Bobbs-Merrill.
• Thompson, P. & Ward, J. (2013). The Poggendorff, Müller-Lyer and other geometric
visual-illusions. In L. Harris & M. Jenkin (Eds.), Levels of Perception. Springer.
• Wundt, W. (1898). Outlines of Psychology. Wilhelm Engelmann.
• Day, R. H. (1989). Visual spatial magnitude. In R. G. Restle et al. (Eds.), Psychology of
Cognition. Ablex.
• Howard, I. P. & Rogers, B. J. (2012). Perceiving in Depth, Volume 1: Basic Mechanisms.
Oxford University Press.
Retroactive Inhibition Experiment

Objective

To demonstrate retroactive inhibition by investigating how an interpolated learning task affects

the recall of previously learned material.

Introduction and Theory

Retroactive inhibition (RI) refers to the impairment of memory for previously learned material
caused by the learning of new material in the interval between learning and recall. The
phenomenon was first systematically studied by Müller and Pilzecker in 1900. They found that
learning a second list of syllables soon after a first list disrupted memory for the first list.
Retroactive inhibition contrasts with proactive inhibition, in which earlier learning interferes with
later learning.

Two major theories explain RI. Interference theory posits that forgetting occurs because
different memory traces compete during retrieval; the more similar the traces, the greater the
interference. Consolidation theory suggests that new memories require time to stabilise
(consolidate) and are vulnerable to disruption by subsequent mental activity. Modern research
indicates that both interference and consolidation processes contribute to RI. Factors affecting
RI include the similarity between original and interpolated tasks, the temporal spacing between
tasks, and the duration and complexity of interpolated activity. Sleep or quiet rest periods can
reduce RI by allowing consolidation to proceed uninterrupted.

Understanding RI has practical implications for education and learning strategies. Studying
similar subjects back-to-back may cause interference, whereas interleaving dissimilar topics or
scheduling breaks can enhance retention. Studies have also shown that high interference is
associated with reduced hippocampal activity during retrieval, suggesting a neural basis for RI.

Material Required

• Two lists of nonsense syllables or word pairs matched for difficulty

• Stopwatch for timing intervals
• Recording sheets for data collection
• Quiet testing environment free from distractions
• Instructions for the subject
• Calculator for percentage calculations
• Optional: additional lists for proactive inhibition conditions
Procedure

1. Subject Preparation. Brief the subject about the general nature of the experiment
without revealing the specific hypothesis. Ensure they are well rested and motivated.
2. Original Learning Phase. Present the first list of nonsense syllables or word pairs for
the subject to memorise within a specified time limit (e.g., 30 seconds). Encourage them
to use any memorisation strategy they find helpful.
3. Control Condition (Rest). After learning the first list, allow the subject a rest period of
equal duration. Ask them to relax and avoid any mental activity related to the material.
4. Experimental Condition (Interpolated Task). After learning the first list, present a
second list (interpolated task) matched in length and difficulty for the same duration.
Ensure the second list differs sufficiently from the first to minimise proactive inhibition.
5. Recall Testing. Test recall of the first list after both the rest period and the interpolated
task. Ask the subject to write down or verbally recall all items they remember, in any
order. Do not provide feedback.
6. Data Recording. Record the number of items correctly recalled in each condition. If
multiple subjects are tested, counterbalance the order of conditions to control for order
effects.
7. Additional Variations. To explore proactive inhibition, reverse the order by presenting
the interpolated list first, followed by the original list, and measure recall of the second
list. This variation is optional but enriches understanding of interference phenomena.

Observation

Subject details: Name: XYZ; Age: 21 years; Gender: Male; Qualification: Undergraduate;
Occupation: Student.

In this demonstration, the subject learned two lists of nonsense syllables containing 10 items
each. Recall was tested after a rest period (control condition) and after learning a second list
(experimental condition).

Condition Items Learned Items Recalled Percentage Recall

Control (Rest) 10 6 60 %

Experimental (Interpolated Task) 10 3 30 %

Calculation of Retroactive Inhibition: \(

rac{ ext{Control Recall} - ext{Experimental Recall}}{ ext{Control Recall}} imes 100 =
rac{60 - 30}{60} imes 100 = 50\%\). The subject noted that the second list interfered with his
recall of the first list, particularly for syllables that sounded similar.

Analysis

The results demonstrate a substantial retroactive inhibition effect, with recall dropping from
60 % to 30 % when an interpolated task intervened. This 50 % decrease is consistent with
classic RI experiments. Because the lists were composed of nonsense syllables, semantic
interference was minimal; however, phonetic similarity may still have contributed to confusion.
The brief rest period allowed for some consolidation of the first list, but not enough to prevent
interference from the second.

Factors that could influence the magnitude of RI include the length of the retention interval,
similarity between lists, and cognitive strategies used during learning. Future investigations
might vary the type of interpolated task (e.g., arithmetic problems versus memorising words),
the delay between learning and recall, or the number of repetitions during original learning.
Neuroimaging studies suggest that hippocampal activity during consolidation is disrupted by
engaging in new learning, offering a biological explanation for RI.

Conclusion

This experiment confirms the hypothesis that learning new information shortly after initial
learning impairs recall of the original material. The demonstration underscores the importance
of spacing study sessions and avoiding back-to-back learning of similar material. Students can
minimise retroactive interference by scheduling breaks, varying study subjects and reviewing
previously learned material after suitable intervals. It is also advisable to sleep between study
sessions, as sleep promotes memory consolidation and reduces interference.

Discussion and Applications

Retroactive and proactive inhibition are key concepts in cognitive psychology and have direct
implications for educational practices. Researchers have shown that alternating subjects
(interleaving) rather than studying the same subject consecutively can enhance long-term
retention. Teachers might structure lessons to minimise interference by interspersing review
periods with new material.

At the neuroscientific level, studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have
linked interference effects to changes in hippocampal activity and prefrontal control
mechanisms. Understanding these processes could inform interventions for age-related
memory decline or memory impairment following brain injury. Pharmacological agents that
enhance consolidation or reduce interference are also an area of ongoing research.

Sources

• Anderson, M. C. & Neely, J. H. (1996). Interference and inhibition in memory retrieval. In

E. L. Bjork & R. A. Bjork (Eds.), Memory: Handbook of Perception and Cognition
(pp. 237–313). Academic Press.
• Jenkins, J. G. & Dallenbach, K. M. (1924). Obliviscence during sleep and waking.
American Journal of Psychology, 35(4), 605–612.
• Müller, G. E. & Pilzecker, A. (1900). Experimentelle Beiträge zur Lehre vom Gedächtnis.
Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 1, 1–300.
• Postman, L. & Underwood, B. J. (1973). Critical issues in interference theory. Memory &
Cognition, 1(1), 19–40.
• Underwood, B. J. (1957). Interference and forgetting. Psychological Review, 64(1), 49–
60.
• Wixted, J. T. (2004). The psychology and neuroscience of forgetting. Annual Review of
Psychology, 55, 235–269.
• Szpunar, K. K., McDermott, K. B. & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Testing during study insulates
against the buildup of proactive interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(6), 1392–1399.
• Karpicke, J. D. & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to
long-term retention. Journal of Memory and Language, 57(2), 151–162.

Sentence Completion Test (SCT)

Objective

To assess personality traits—specifically sociability, self-confidence and ambition—using the

Sentence Completion Test (SCT) developed by L. N. Dubey and Archana Dubey as a projective
technique for personality evaluation.

Introduction and Theory

Projective techniques have been a part of psychological assessment since the early
20th century. They are based on the premise that people project their own emotions, attitudes
and conflicts onto ambiguous stimuli. The SCT belongs to a family of completion tests, including
the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank and other sentence completion tasks. Such tests ask
respondents to finish open-ended sentence stems, thus revealing underlying motives and
self-perceptions. Projective methods are valued for their ability to uncover hidden aspects of
personality that may not surface through direct questioning.

The Dubey & Dubey SCT was standardised in India and consists of 50 incomplete sentences
targeting sociability, self-confidence and ambition. Responses are scored on a three-point scale:
positive (2), neutral (0) and negative (1). The scoring manual provides examples of response
categories and normative tables for interpretation. Reliability coefficients range from 0.65 to
0.80, indicating moderate consistency. Validity studies show correlations with other personality
measures such as the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and self-esteem inventories.

Advantages of the SCT include its flexibility, ease of administration and ability to probe sensitive
topics indirectly. However, interpretation relies heavily on the examiner’s training and may be
subject to bias. Scorers must be familiar with cultural norms to avoid misclassifying responses.
Therefore, the SCT should be used alongside other assessment tools for a comprehensive
personality evaluation.

Material Required

• SCT booklet containing 50 incomplete sentences

• Answer sheet or response booklet
• Scoring manual with interpretation guidelines and normative tables
• Stopwatch (optional, for timing)
• Pen/pencil
• Quiet, comfortable testing environment free from distractions

Procedure

1. Preparation. Ensure a comfortable and private testing environment free from

distractions. Explain the general purpose of the test and obtain informed consent.
2. Rapport Building. Establish rapport with the subject to reduce anxiety. Emphasise that
there are no right or wrong answers and that the test is not an examination.
3. Instructions. Instruct the subject to complete each sentence with the first thought that
comes to mind. Stress the importance of working quickly and not spending too much time
on any one sentence. Reinforce that spontaneous responses are most revealing.
4. Administration. Present the SCT booklet containing 50 incomplete sentences. Provide
the answer sheet and pen/pencil. Allow the subject to work independently but remain
available for procedural questions.
 5. Monitoring. Observe the subject discreetly during completion, noting any hesitations or
emotional reactions. Offer reassurance if needed without influencing responses.
6. Time Management. Allow adequate time—typically 20–30 minutes—for completion.
Remind the subject of the remaining time at the halfway point.
7. Collection. Collect the completed response sheet. Check for missing responses and ask
the subject to complete any omissions.
8. Scoring. Score responses according to the three-point system outlined in the manual.
Classify each response as positive, neutral or negative based on content and tone. Sum
the scores for each personality trait and calculate the overall score.
9. Interpretation. Refer to the normative tables to classify raw scores into descriptive
categories (e.g., Extremely High, High, Above Average, Average, Below Average, Low,
Maladjusted). Provide feedback to the subject if appropriate and discuss implications.

Observation

Subject details: Name: XYZ; Age: 23 years; Gender: Female; Qualification: Graduate;
Occupation: Working.

The subject completed the SCT in 25 minutes. Her responses were thoughtful and generally
positive, indicating a constructive outlook.

Sample incomplete sentences and responses

1. “When I am with other people, I enjoy engaging in conversations and making new
friends.” (positive)
2. “My greatest fear is letting down those I care about.” (positive)
3. “I feel confident when I have prepared thoroughly and trust my abilities.” (positive)
4. “My ambition in life is to build a successful career while contributing positively to society.”
(positive)
5. “In social situations, I usually take the initiative to break the ice and include others.”
(positive)

Scoring system: Positive response = 2 marks (healthy, adaptive); Neutral response = 0 marks
(neither positive nor negative); Negative response = 1 mark (maladaptive).

Personality Trait Raw Score Grade Descriptive Level

Sociability 35 Good Above Average

Self-Confidence 30 Good Average

Ambition 40 Good High

Overall Personality 105 Good Above Average

Analysis

The subject’s raw scores were interpreted using the normative tables in the SCT manual. Her
sociability score of 35 places her in the “Above Average” category, indicating a strong inclination
toward social interaction and a positive view of others. The self-confidence score of 30
(Average) reflects a balanced self-concept; she believes in her abilities but may experience
occasional self-doubt. An ambition score of 40 (High) suggests strong achievement motivation
and clear goals for the future.

The combined score of 105 places the subject’s overall personality in the “Good” and “Above
Average” range. This profile suggests a well-adjusted individual with proactive social skills,
healthy self-esteem and a drive for success. It is important to note that projective tests can be
influenced by context, mood and response style. Therefore, interpretation should be
supplemented with collateral information from interviews, behavioural observations and other
psychometric instruments.

Conclusion

The Sentence Completion Test offers a valuable window into the subject’s personality structure
across three key dimensions. Her responses reveal high sociability and ambition along with
stable self-confidence. The test highlights strengths that can be leveraged in career planning
and personal development. Limitations include the subjective nature of scoring and the potential
for social desirability bias. Consequently, results should be interpreted by trained professionals
and considered alongside other assessment data.

Discussion and Applications

Sentence completion tests have broad applications in counselling, clinical assessment and
career guidance. In counselling, SCT responses can reveal themes such as fear of failure,
relationship concerns or motivational conflicts, guiding therapeutic interventions. In educational
settings, educators may use SCTs to identify students’ aspirations and self-perceptions,
informing mentorship programmes.
However, the subjective nature of scoring necessitates rigorous training and use of
standardised manuals to ensure reliability. Cultural context greatly influences the interpretation
of responses; words and phrases may have different connotations across languages and
regions. Adaptations of the SCT for different cultural groups should consider language, idioms
and culturally relevant values. Research on inter-rater reliability and cross-cultural validity
remains an important area for improving projective assessments.

Sources

• Butcher, J. N. & Rouse, S. V. (1996). Contemporary use of projective techniques in

psychological assessment: A survey of practices and attitudes. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 66(3), 433–448.
• Dubey, L. N. & Dubey, A. (2006). Sentence Completion Test (Manual). National
Psychological Corporation.
• Hibbard, S. M. (2003). A critique of the sentence completion test. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 80(3), 281–294.
• Lilienfeld, S. O., Wood, J. M. & Garb, H. N. (2000). The scientific status of projective
techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1(2), 27–66.
• Rotter, J. B. & Rafferty, J. E. (1950). The Rotter incomplete sentences blank. Journal of
Consulting Psychology, 14(5), 443–447.
• Taylor, L. (2012). Projective tests: Theory and practice. In J. P. Hunsley & E. M. Mash
(Eds.), Assessment Measures for Counseling and Psychotherapy. Oxford University
Press.
• Manaster, G. J. & Mufson, N. (1958). A review of the sentence completion method.
Psychological Bulletin, 55(5), 315–329.
• Frank, G. H. (1939). Projective methods for measuring personality. Psychological
Bulletin, 36(8), 540–541.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

Objective

To assess a subject’s personality by measuring four key dimensions—Psychoticism (P),

Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N) and Lie/Social Desirability (L)—using the EPQ adapted by
Dr. B. Dey and Dr. R. Thakur for the Indian population.
Introduction and Theory

Hans Eysenck’s dimensional theory of personality emerged from factor-analytic studies that
consistently revealed three major traits: Psychoticism, Extraversion and Neuroticism (PEN).
These dimensions are conceived as continua rather than discrete categories. Later, a Lie or
Social Desirability scale was added to detect response bias. Psychoticism describes
tough-mindedness, aggressiveness and nonconformity; Extraversion reflects sociability,
impulsiveness and sensation seeking; Neuroticism indexes emotional instability, anxiety and
moodiness. The Lie scale measures a tendency to present oneself in a favourable light.

Eysenck proposed biological bases for the PEN dimensions. He argued that extraversion is
associated with cortical arousal levels controlled by the reticular activating system; introverts
have higher baseline arousal and therefore seek less stimulation. Neuroticism is linked to
autonomic nervous system reactivity and limbic system sensitivity. Psychoticism has been
associated with dopaminergic function and is thought to overlap with traits such as low
agreeableness and low conscientiousness. Subsequent research has supported some, but not
all, of these biological hypotheses.

The EPQ has been widely used in clinical, educational and research settings. Normative tables
allow interpretation relative to age and gender groups. The questionnaire has demonstrated
good test–retest reliability and internal consistency. Compared with the Big Five model,
Eysenck’s PEN model collapses Agreeableness and Conscientiousness into Psychoticism and
shares Neuroticism and Extraversion. Cross-cultural adaptations, such as the Indian version by
Dey and Thakur, ensure linguistic and cultural appropriateness.

Material Required

• EPQ questionnaire booklet (72 questions)

• Answer sheet
• Scoring keys for each dimension
• Test manual with normative tables
• Z-score conversion tables and interpretation guidelines
• Pen/pencil
• Quiet, comfortable testing environment

Procedure

1. Environment Setup. Ensure a quiet, comfortable and private testing environment.

Explain the purpose of the assessment and obtain informed consent.
 2. Rapport Building. Establish rapport with the subject and emphasise that there are no
right or wrong answers. Encourage honest responses and reassure the subject that
results are confidential.
3. Instructions. Ask the subject to answer each question with Yes, No or Not Sure. Explain
the importance of considering each item carefully and responding truthfully. Clarify the
meaning of “Not Sure” as used for items that do not clearly apply.
4. Administration. Present the 72-item questionnaire and an answer sheet. Allow the
subject to complete the items at their own pace.
5. Monitoring. Observe the subject during completion to ensure they understand the task.
Address procedural queries without interpreting items.
6. Time Management. Provide 15–20 minutes for completion. Inform the subject of the time
remaining at regular intervals.
7. Collection. Collect the completed answer sheet and verify that no items were left blank.
Ask the subject to complete any omissions.
8. Scoring. Use the scoring keys to assign points to responses. For positively keyed items,
score 2 for Yes, 1 for Not Sure and 0 for No; for negatively keyed items (marked with a
dot), score 2 for No, 1 for Not Sure and 0 for Yes.
9. Interpretation. Convert raw scores to Z-scores using normative tables. Classify the
scores into categories (Low, Average, Above Average, High) and interpret each
dimension. Discuss results with the subject if appropriate.

Observation

Subject details: Name: XYZ; Age: 24 years; Gender: Male; Qualification: Graduate;
Occupation: Working professional.

Scoring system: For positive statements: Yes = 2 points, Not Sure = 1 point, No = 0 points; for
negatively keyed statements: No = 2 points, Not Sure = 1 point, Yes = 0 points.

Dimension Raw Score Z-Score Grade Interpretation

Psychoticism (P) 10 0.5 Average Balanced

Extraversion (E) 15 1.2 High Outgoing

Neuroticism (N) 12 0.8 Average Moderate Reactivity

Lie Scale (L) 3 −0.5 Low Honest

Analysis

The subject’s psychoticism score (Z = 0.5) falls within the average range, indicating a balanced
approach to social norms and empathy. High extraversion (Z = 1.2) suggests an outgoing,
sociable and impulsive personality, consistent with traits such as sensation seeking and
optimism. Neuroticism (Z = 0.8) is slightly above average, pointing to moderate emotional
reactivity and susceptibility to stress; however, the score remains within the normal range. The
low lie scale score (Z = −0.5) implies honest responding with little tendency toward social
desirability bias.

Interpreting the dimensions together provides a holistic personality profile. The combination of
high extraversion and average psychoticism suggests a socially engaged individual who values
interpersonal connections. The moderate neuroticism may manifest as occasional mood swings
or anxiety, which could be managed through stress-reduction techniques. Overall, the profile
indicates a well-adjusted person with typical emotional responsiveness and social tendencies.

Conclusion

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire offers a concise yet comprehensive assessment of

personality across four fundamental dimensions. This subject’s scores reveal high sociability,
average tough-mindedness and moderate emotional reactivity, coupled with honest responding.
Such information can inform career guidance, team-building initiatives and personal
development plans. Limitations of the EPQ include vulnerability to response bias and the need
to interpret scores relative to cultural norms. Complementing the EPQ with other measures and
clinical interviews is advisable for a thorough assessment.

Discussion and Applications

The EPQ has found widespread applications in clinical, educational and occupational settings.
In clinical psychology, elevated scores on Neuroticism may signal vulnerability to anxiety and
mood disorders, while high Psychoticism may be associated with antisocial behaviour.
Occupational psychologists use the EPQ to match personality traits with job requirements; for
example, high extraversion and low neuroticism are desirable in sales and customer service
roles.

However, the concept of Psychoticism has been criticised for conflating diverse behaviours and
lacking clear biological underpinnings. Comparisons between the PEN model and the Big Five
highlight areas of overlap and divergence, prompting some researchers to advocate for
integrated models. Cultural and language adaptations of the EPQ require careful validation to
ensure that items carry equivalent meaning across contexts. Future developments may
incorporate computerised adaptive testing and neurobiological measures to enhance
personality assessment.

Sources

• Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R)
and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) Professional Manual. Psychological
Assessment Resources.
• Deary, I. J., Matthews, G. & Whiteman, M. C. (2003). Personality Traits. Cambridge
University Press.
• Dey, B. & Thakur, R. (1999). Indian adaptation of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
manual.
• Eysenck, H. J. & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire. Hodder & Stoughton.
• Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress (2nd ed.). Cambridge University
Press.
• Matthews, G. & Deary, I. J. (1998). Personality Traits. Cambridge University Press.
• Claridge, G. & Davis, C. (2003). Personality and psychological disorders. In T. Millon &
M. J. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology, Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. Wiley.
• van den Broeck, A., Vander Elst, T. & Baillien, E. (2017). Job demands, job resources,
and personality: Their relationship with work engagement and burnout. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 91, 1–12.

Verbal Learning Experiment

Problem Statement

To study how repeated exposure to a list of verbal items affects learning and recall. The
experiment examines the relationship between the number of learning trials and the amount of
material retained.

Introduction and Theory

Verbal learning tasks have long been used to study memory processes. Hermann Ebbinghaus
pioneered this field by memorising lists of nonsense syllables and documenting the forgetting
curve, demonstrating that memory retention declines rapidly after initial learning but then levels
off. Modern research continues to examine how variables such as word frequency, imagery,
semantic relatedness and list length affect learning. Encoding strategies such as rehearsal,
elaboration, chunking and mnemonics enhance verbal learning. The serial position effect
predicts better recall for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list.
Distributed practice (spaced repetitions) typically yields better long-term retention than massed
practice.

According to the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968), information passes
from sensory memory to short-term memory and, with rehearsal, to long-term memory. Working
memory theories elaborate on this framework, proposing separate systems for phonological,
visual and central executive processing. Verbal learning experiments illustrate how rehearsal
strengthens memory traces and how interference can disrupt them. Brain imaging studies link
verbal learning to the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe structures. Age, cognitive ability
and sleep quality also influence learning performance.

Understanding verbal learning has implications for education, such as designing effective study
schedules, using spaced repetition and employing imagery or semantic associations. It also
informs clinical assessments of memory in neuropsychology.

Material Required

• A list of 12 common, unrelated words (e.g., chair, apple, river, table, lamp, book, garden,
clock, tree, pencil, cup, window)
• Alternate word lists of similar difficulty (for counterbalancing)
• Stopwatch or timer
• Recording sheet or notebook
• Quiet environment free from distractions
• Pen/pencil

Procedure

1. Preparation. Prepare the word list and recording sheets. Randomise the order of words
to control for serial position effects. If multiple subjects are tested, use different lists to
avoid practice effects.
2. Instructions. Inform the subject that they will hear or read the same list several times
and must recall as many words as possible after each exposure. Emphasise that the
order of recall is unimportant.
3. Presentation. Present the list aloud at a consistent pace (approximately 2 seconds per
word) for a total exposure time of about 30 seconds per trial. Ensure the subject is
 attentive and not taking notes.
4. Immediate Recall. Immediately after each presentation, ask the subject to recall as
many words as possible in any order. Record the correctly recalled words and note any
intrusions or repetitions.
5. Repetition. Repeat the presentation and recall cycle for six trials. Provide short breaks
(e.g., 30 seconds) between trials to reduce fatigue. Do not provide feedback about
performance.
6. Post-Experiment Questionnaire. After the final trial, ask the subject about strategies
they used (e.g., grouping, imagery) and subjective difficulty.
7. Debriefing. Explain the purpose of the study, including the concepts of learning curves
and memory strategies, and thank the subject for participating.

Observation

Subject details: Name: XYZ; Age: 22 years; Gender: Female; Qualification: Undergraduate;
Occupation: Student.

The subject reported using mental imagery to link words together (e.g., picturing a chair beside
a river). The following table summarises the learning progress across six trials. Each trial
involved presenting the 12-word list for approximately 30 seconds and then testing immediate
recall.

Trial Exposure Time (s) Items Presented Correctly Recalled Percentage Recall

1 30 12 5 41.7 %

2 30 12 7 58.3 %

3 30 12 9 75.0 %

4 30 12 10 83.3 %

5 30 12 11 91.7 %

6 30 12 11 91.7 %

Intrusions occurred in the first two trials, where the subject incorrectly recalled related words
(e.g., “chair” and “stool”). Such errors diminished by the fourth trial as learning stabilised.
Analysis

The data show a negatively accelerated learning curve typical of verbal learning experiments.
Recall improved rapidly over the first three trials, rising from 5 to 9 words, and then began to
level off. By the fifth and sixth trials the subject recalled 11 out of 12 words (91.7 %), indicating
near-complete learning. This asymptotic performance suggests that additional repetitions would
yield minimal improvement.

The subject’s self-reported use of imagery and grouping likely facilitated encoding and retrieval.
The serial position effect was observed: words presented at the beginning of the list were
recalled earlier in the first trials, while recency effects were evident in early trials but diminished
as proactive interference increased. The plateau between trials 5 and 6 indicates that the
subject reached the limits of her immediate memory capacity for this list.

To extend the experiment, one could introduce a delayed recall test after a distractor task to
examine forgetting curves or compare learning under massed versus spaced practice.
Investigating the effects of semantic clustering or mnemonics could also yield insights into
strategy use.

Conclusion

This experiment demonstrates that verbal learning improves with repeated exposure and that
the rate of improvement diminishes over time. The findings support theories of memory
consolidation and highlight the effectiveness of encoding strategies such as mental imagery.
Educational implications include recommending spaced repetition, use of meaningful
associations and strategic grouping to enhance learning and retention. Limitations include the
use of a small sample and reliance on immediate recall; future studies could explore long-term
retention and individual differences.

Discussion and Applications

Verbal learning research informs educational practices such as spaced repetition, retrieval
practice and elaborative encoding. Teachers can improve retention by interspersing review
sessions throughout a course and encouraging students to actively retrieve information rather
than passively reread. Mnemonic devices, imagery and semantic associations aid encoding and
recall.

Researchers are also exploring individual differences in verbal learning, including the effects of
age, sleep and neurological conditions. For example, older adults often show reduced recall and
benefit from spacing and external memory aids. Sleep has been shown to consolidate verbal
memories, suggesting that study sessions spaced before bedtime may enhance learning.
Understanding these factors can inform interventions for memory impairment and guide
personalised learning strategies.

Sources

• Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes. In K. Spence & J. Spence (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning and
Motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). Academic Press.
• Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M. W. & Anderson, M. C. (2020). Memory. Psychology Press.
• Craik, F. I. M. & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory
research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684.
• Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. Dover
Publications (reprint).
• Glanzer, M. & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5(4), 351–360.
• Murdock, B. B. (1962). The serial position effect of free recall. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 64(5), 482–488.
• Roediger, H. L. & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests
improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249–255.
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251.