A

INTERNSHIP REPORT
on

“Design and Analysis of e378 Helicopter Rotor

Blade”
Submitted to:
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur for
Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of Aeronautical engineering

Bachelor of Technology

Submitted by
Mr.YASH RAJESH PATIL

Under the Guidance of

Prof. NARESH JONNA

Name of Department

NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade ISO 9001:2015 Certified

Vidarbha Bahu-uddeshiya Shikshan Sanstha’s

Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering
& Technology, Nagpur-441108
(An Autonomous Institute affiliated to RTMNU, Nagpur)

Session 2024-25
 Tulsiramji Gaikwad-PatilCollege
of Engineering & Technology,
Nagpur-441108
(An Autonomous Institute affiliated to Rashtrasant
Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that internship work described in this report
entitled, “design and analysis of e378 Helicopter Rotor Blade” was
carried out by Mr. YASH RAJESH PATIL in Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil
College of Engineering & Technology, Nagpur under my supervision
and guidance in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree
of Bachelor of Technology of Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
University, Nagpur.

This work is the own work of the candidate, completed in all

respect and is of sufficiently high standard to warrant its submission
to the said degree. The assistance and resources used for this work
are duly acknowledged.

Name of Guide Name of Industry

Person
NARESH JONNA DIPIKA DESHMUKH

Dean SDC
Name of HoD Dr. Snehal
Abhyankar
VISHWAJITH AMBADE

Dr. Pragati Patil Dr. P. L.

Naktode
Vice-Principal
Principal
Date: 28 / 04 /2024

Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil
College of Engineering &
Technology, Nagpur-441108
(An Autonomous Institute affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj
Nagpur University, Nagpur)

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this Internship titled “Design and Analysis of e378
Helicopter Rotor Blade” is a bonafide and authentic record of the work done
by me under supervision of NARESH JONNA during academic session
2024-25.
The work presented here is not duplicated from any other source and also
not submitted earlier for any other degree/diploma of any university. I
understand that any such duplication is liable to be punished in accordance
with the university rules. The source material, data used in this research have
been duly acknowledged.

Date: 29/04/2025
Place: Name and Signature of
Student
PLAGIARISM REPORT OF THIS WORK
 CONTENTS
Certificate i
Declaration ii
Acknowledgement iii
Plagiarism Report on the present work iv
Certificate(s) for Internship presentation vi

CHAPTER – I
Overview of Present Work
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 Theoretical study of aerofoil
1.3 Methodology for design and CFD simulation

CHAPTER – II
Literature Review
2.1 Design of E 387 blade
2.2 DESIGN CAD
2.3 FEA (FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS)

CHAPTER – III
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CFD

3.2 STEPS IN CFD SIMULATION

3.3 STEPS IN CFD SIMULATION PROCESS

CHAPTER – IV
4.1 2D CFD SIMULATION FOR COMPARISON OF E 387 AND NACA 0012
PROFILE
4.2 CFD SIMULATION FOR 2D SHAPE AIRFOIL GEOMETRY
4.3 NACA 0012 AIRFOIL SURFACE
CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
CHAPTER – No.1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Similar to a bird’s wing, an aircraft wing is the lifting surface with the chosen aerofoil
section, whose shape/geometry can be varied span wise to search better performance.
The lift generated by the wing sustains the weight of the aircraft to make flight in the air.
Again, from an aerodynamic perspective, the main source of the airplane drag is
associated with the wing. Around two-thirds of the total drag of typical transport aircraft
at cruise conditions is produced by the wing. Therefore, the effects of wing shape and
size are crucial to aerodynamic characteristics (lift, drag, lift to drag ratio, etc) on which
the efficiency as well as the performance of aircraft depend.
While an accurate mathematical representation of fluid flows can be achieved
using the Navier–Stokes (NS) partial differential equations, these are very difficult to
analyze due to their complexity and most of the time obtaining an analytical solution is
impossible. As a result, flow systems are typically studied numerically using
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods; examples include bluff body flows, and
non-Newtonian flows. Analyzing the fluid flow around aerofoil is one of the important
problems in fluid mechanics. One sample problem of interest is to control the separation
on aerofoil, which is the breakaway or detachment of fluid from a solid surface.
A standard computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver is extended to be able to
measure desired feedback values and to apply a control input to the flow field. The
proposed modeling and control approach is based on first determining the measurement
points and injection points on the aerofoil for the control input.
1.2 Theoretical study of aerofoil
An aerofoil is the shape of an aircraft wing as seen in the below cross section shows the
four main forces of flight acting on the aerofoil. The weight of the aircraft is directed
downwards towards the earth. To achieve flight, the weight must be overcome by the lift
force generated by the motion of the airplane through the air. The wing deflects the air
downward and the opposite reaction pushes the wing up. The forward motion of the
aircraft is attained by the thrust force generated by the engines. As the aerofoil pushes
the air out of its way, the air pushes back on the aerofoil generating a drag force. This
force is opposite to the motion direction and can be thought of as an aerodynamic
friction. Wing structures are also used in boats, submarines and ships where the idea is
similar but the fluid is water instead of air. When used in watercraft, these are often
called hydrofoils.

Fig.1. Forces on aerofoil

 The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA).
 The shape of the NACA airfoils is described using a series of digits following the
word "NACA".
 This NACA airfoil series is controlled by 4 digits e.g. NACA 2412, which
designate the camber, position of the maximum camber and thickness. If an
airfoil number is
NACA MPXX
NACA 2412

 M is the maximum camber divided by 100. In the example M=2 so the

camber is 0.02 or 2% of the chord
  P is the position of the maximum camber divided by 10. In the example P=4
so the maximum camber is at 0.4 or 40% of the chord.
 XX is the thickness divided by 100. In the example XX=12 so the thickness is
0.12 or 12% of the chord.

Fig.2. NACA 2412 aerofoil

NACA Aerofoil Nomenclature

• Chord Line – It is straight line connecting leading edge and trailing edge.
• Leading Edge – It is the point at the front of aerofoil that has maximum
curvature (minimum radius)
• Trailing Edge - It is defined as similarly as the point of maximum curvature at
rear of aerofoil.
• Angle of Attack- It is angle between relative wind and chord line.
• Upper Surface – It is upper part of aerofoil.
• Lower Surface– It is lower part of aerofoil.
• Camber Line – It is the locus of point’s midway between upper and lower
surfaces.

Fig.3. NACA Nomenclature

Problem Statement
 Study and analysis of E 387 helicopter blade to obtain natural frequency and
mode shape to study velocity and pressure distribution over blade surface in
existing condition

 Objectives
 Design of helicopter blade (E 387) using standard process with use of airfoil tools
website procedure.
 Modelling of blade using CATIA software and CFD simulation in ANSYS fluent
to determine lifting force, velocity distribution and pressure contour on both
surfaces.
 Manufacturing of blade using composite material (Carbon epoxy).
 FEA analysis using ANSYS software to determine mode shape and respective
frequency in modal analysis.
 Comparison of E 387 aero foil shape with symmetrical shape NACA 0012 and
plot pressure distribution, pressure coefficient graph, lift and drag force using 2D
CFD simulation.
1.3 Methodology for design and CFD simulation

LITERATURE SURVEY
PROBLEM DEFINITION
1
MODELING (www.airfoiltools.com) (PROFILE).
MESHING AND APPLYING BOUNDARY
CONDITION IN ANSYS FLUENT
2 CARRYING OUT ANALYSIS IN FLUENT

OBTAINING THE RESULTS

CONCLUSION
3
CHAPTER – No.2
Literature Review
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Passive load alleviation aerofoil concept with variable stiffness multi-stable

composites, Andres F. Arrieta, Izabela K. Kuder, Mathias Rist, Tobias Waeber,
Paolo Ermanni, Composite Structures 116 (2014) 235–242
In this journal it presents a passive load alleviation aerofoil concept featuring variable
stiffness multiscale elements is presented. A fluid–structure interaction leading to fatigue
failure and added robustness of wing like structures constitute important design
challenges. A reduction in the penalties associated to the added structural mass required
to withstand rare load scenarios by means of load alleviation control is highly desirable,
particularly for efficient light-weight engineering systems, such as aircraft and wind
turbine blades. Implementation of morphing for modifying the lift distribution to
mitigate the impact of rare, but integrity threatening, loads on wing-like structures offers
a potential solution for such challenges. The adaptability in the structural response of the
aerofoil when subjected to aerodynamic forces allows for passively changing from a high
lift generation shape, to a load alleviation configuration exploiting the energy of the
flow. Passive implementations to achieve load alleviation through morphing result in
lighter and simpler designs in comparison to actively actuated solutions. The capability
to achieve load alleviation utilising a passive mechanism that exploits the variable
stiffness exhibited by novel multi-stable embeddable laminates is demonstrated on a
compliant aerofoil. A desired selectively activated deformation mode reducing the
aerodynamic force produced by the aerofoil is introduced by the difference in the
stiffness of the structure as a limit in critical force is reached. The adaptation in the
structural response triggered by a snap-through of the embedded multiscale variable
stiffness element results in a change of the camber of the aerofoil, consequently
decreasing the produced aerodynamic force which loads the structure. This is
demonstrated both numerically and experimentally with a simple load case for a variable
stiffness aerofoil design. The response of the aerofoil shows significant structural
adaptation, resulting from the embedded multiscale components. In particular, the level
of stiffness variability ranges from 5/1 to 23/1 depending on the load stage when
comparing the stiff and compliant state responses. The experimentally obtained range of
stiffness variation, as well as the measured critical load defining the threshold triggering
the load alleviation mechanism, are well captured with the developed FE model.
 Investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of an aerofoil shaped
fuselage UAV model, G.M. Jahangir Alama, Md. Mamun, Md. Abu. Taher Alib,
Md. Quamrul Islamb,
K. M. Sadrul Islamc, 10th International Conference on Mechanical Engineering,
ICME 2013, Procedia Engineering 90 ( 2014 ) 225 – 231

This paper explains the fabrication of an UAV having aerofoil shaped fuselage using
NACA 4416 profile and compared the result between the aerodynamic characteristics
with that of the same model obtained from CFD investigation. Open circuit subsonic
wind tunnel has been used to test the fabricated UAV model and collection of data. The
wind tunnel is associated with Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS) to measure
the lift & drag force coefficients and point surface pressures. The aerodynamic
characteristics of UAV model have been carried out at two different Reynolds Number
(1.37 x 105 and 2.74 x 105 respectively) with different angles of attack from -3 o to 18o.
The stalling angle of this design is found at about 14 o during experimental investigation.
The L/D Ratio of ‘Aerofoil shaped fuselage configuration’ at the stalling angle (14°
AOA) at 20 & 40 m/s are 6.84 & 8.02 respectively for experimental design and for
theoretical design the L/D Ratio of same model at the stalling angle (15° AOA) at 20 and
40 m/s are 5.13 & 7.40 respectively.

Aerofoil broadband and tonal noise modelling using stochastic sound sources and
incorporated large scale fluctuations, S. Proskurov, O.R. Darbyshire , S.A.
Karabasov, Journal of Sound and Vibration 411 (2017) 60e74
In this journal it presents modifications to the stochastic Fast Random Particle Mesh
(FRPM) method featuring both tonal and broadband noise sources. The technique relies
on the combination of incorporated vortex-shedding resolved flow available from
Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) simulation with the fine-scale
turbulence FRPM solution generated via the stochastic velocity fluctuations in the
context of vortex sound theory. In contrast to the existing literature, our method
encompasses a unified treatment for broadband and tonal acoustic noise sources at the
source level, thus, accounting for linear source interference as well as possible non-linear
source interaction effects. When sound sources are determined, for the sound
propagation, Acoustic Perturbation Equations (APE-4) are solved in the time-domain.
Results of the method's application for two aerofoil benchmark cases, with both sharp
 and blunt trailing edges are presented. In each case, the importance of individual
linear and non-linear noise sources was investigated. Several new key features related to
the unsteady implementation of the method were tested and brought into the equation.
Encouraging results have been obtained for benchmark test cases using the new
technique which is believed to be potentially applicable to other airframe noise problems
where both tonal and broadband parts are important. For the aerofoil trailing-edge noise
applications a Fast Random Particle Mesh (FRPM) method combined with solving the
time-domain Acoustic Perturbation Equations is used in the framework of the BAE
ALTUS solver. The simulations were performed for a 2D model setting which made
them amenable to a 48 h run time per case on 64 computational cores. The original
FRPM technique has been extended to include tonal noise sources based on the idea of
scale separation by combining the large-scale flow solution available from Unsteady
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) with the fine-scale FRPM solution.
Compared to the existing literature this modification allows for a unified treatment of the
broadband and tonal noise sources at the source level, consistently accounting for source
interference and possible nonlinear source interaction effects. All model predictions are
essentially based on the RANS simulations with just two calibration parameters: one for
the correlation length scale and the other for the correlation amplitude. The importance
of including a separate tonal noise source in the original broadband FRPM model as well
as having an appropriate flow model that captures the relevant tonal scale is investigated.
By comparing the predictions of the new unified model with the synthetic spectra
obtained by simply adding squares of the acoustic pressure amplitudes of the pure
broadband and the pure tonal noise signals in the far-field, it is shown that the broadband
and the tonal sources are virtually uncorrelated for the test case considered. However, not
to mention its generality, the new unified approach is approximately two times
computationally more efficient since the calculation of the synthetic spectra from the
individual broadband and tonal signals requires 2 solutions of the far-field sound
propagation problem.

Experimental investigation on the performance of NACA 4412 aerofoil with curved

leading edge planform, M. Nazmul Haquea, Mohammad Alia , Ismat Ara, 6th
BSME International Conference on Thermal Engineering (ICTE 2014), Procedia
Engineering 105 ( 2015 ) 232 – 240
this paper represents the experimental investigation to explore better aerodynamic
performance by incorporating curvature at the leading edge of a wing. A wooden model
with straight leading and trailing edge i.e. rectangular planform and another model with
curved leading edge and straight trailing edge are prepared with NACA 4412 airfoil in
equal length (span) and surface area. Both the models are tested in a closed-circuit wind
tunnel at air speed of 85.35 kph (0.07 Mach) i.e. at Reynolds’s number 1.82 x 105. The
static pressure at different angles of attack (-4˚, 0˚, 4˚, 8˚, 12˚, 16˚, 20˚ & 24˚) are
measured from both upper and lower surfaces of the wing models through different
pressure tapings by using a multi-tube water manometer. From the static pressure
distribution, lift coefficient, drag coefficient and lift to drag ratio of both the models are
analyzed. After analyzing the data, it is found that the curved leading edge wing
planform is having higher lift coefficient and lower drag coefficient than the rectangular
wing planform. Thus, the curved leading-edge planform is having higher lift to drag ratio
than the rectangular planform.

Nonlinear modelling and control of the flow over aerofoils using CFD simulations,
H.D. Karaca , G.D. Özen, C. Kasnako ˘glu, Simulation Modelling Practice and
Theory 67 (2016) 29–43
In this article it presents a simulation-based approach for nonlinear dynamical modelling
and feedback control of the drag to lift ratio for aerofoils through case studies involving
NACA 23012, ag13 and b737a aerofoils. The flow around the aerofoils is studied via
numerical solutions of the 2D Navier–Stokes (NS) equations. A standard computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) solver is extended to be able to measure desired feedback values
and to apply a control input to the flow field. The proposed modelling and control
approach is based on first determining the measurement points and injection points on
the aerofoil for the control input. Then, to estimate the dynamical model, some input–
output data are collected by injecting a chirp input flow to the field and saving the
measurement data. Next a Hammerstein–Wiener (HW) type nonlinear dynamical model
of the flow field is estimated using system identification. For control design, the
nonlinear part of the model is eliminated by means of inverse functions, followed by the
application of automated tuning methods to the linear part to obtain the closed-loop
system. The results show that the de- signed feedback control system can reduce the drag
to lift ratio considerably as compared to the unactuated case. In this study the nonlinear
modelling and feedback control of the drag to lift (D/L) ratio for three aerofoils was
studied. Input–output data collected by means of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
simulations was used in system identification to construct a Hammerstein–Wiener type
nonlinear model for the flow process. A special restriction was imposed during
identification so that the input–output nonlinearity functions of the HW model are
designed to be invertible over the do- main of interest. This property was exploited
during control design by first designing controllers for the linear block of the HW model,
and then mapping the inputs and outputs to the nonlinear model through the inverse
functions of the non-linearities. CFD simulations for the closed-loop system
demonstrated that the controller efficiently suppresses D/L ratio to a significant fraction
of the uncontrolled scenario. In light of the promising results obtained in this paper, our
future works include applying the proposed method to a broader range of aerofoils from
turbulent, laminar and natural laminar families, as well as experimenting with different
speed regimes, varying angle of attack and compressible flows.

Leading- and trailing-edge effects on the aeromechanics of membrane airfoils, Sara

Arbo´ s-Torrent, Bharathram Ganapathi subramani, RafaelPalacios, Journal of
Fluids and Structures 38 (2013) 107–126
this study explores the geometry of sliver steel supports have on aeromechanics
performance of a membrane aerofoil. Test are performed at low Reynolds number
Re=9x104 and incidence of 2-250,high speed photogrammetry as well as force
measurements are carried out to explore the effects of four different leading edge (LE)
and trailing edge (TE) designs on the performance of membrane aerofoil. It indicate that
mean camber as well as membrane vibration (both mode shape and frequency) change
with geometry and size of LE and TE support. The LE/TE supports with a rectangular
cross section consistently provide higher lift forces and higher mean camber deformation
compared to the circular cross section.

An experimental study on aerodynamics of NACA2415 aerofoil at low Re numbers,

M. Serdar Genc, Ilyas Karasu, H. Hakan Acıkel, Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science 39 (2012) 252–264
In this journal it presents experimental investigation on aerodynamics of a NACA2415
aerofoil by varying angle of attack from 12 to 20 degree at low Reynolds number flight
regimes. For this investigation, pressure distributions over the aerofoil were measured
using a system including a pitot static tube, a scan valve unit and a pressure transducer.
Moreover, time-dependant lift and drag forces and pitch moment of the aerofoil were
obtained by using an external three-component load-cell system. Velocity measurements
at different points over the aerofoil were carried out by using a hot-wire anemometer,
and oil flow visualization method was used to photograph the surface flow patterns. The
experimental results showed that as the angle of attack increased, the separation and the
transition points moved towards the leading edge at all Reynolds numbers. Furthermore,
as the Reynolds number increased, stall characteristic changed and the mild stall
occurred at higher Reynolds numbers whereas the abrupt stall occurred at lower
Reynolds numbers. The stall angle varied with Re number due to the viscous effects and
decreased with decreasing Re number. By the decreasing of the Re number, short bubble
burst at higher

Angles of attack, which caused long bubble to occur. In this study, the LSB, transition
and reattachment formed over the NACA2415 aerofoil at low Re numbers were
experimentally investigated in order to gain some understanding for low Re number
aerodynamics of the NACA2415 aerofoil. In the investigation of the pressure
distributions, the formation and progress of the LSB, transition and re-attached flow
were seen obviously. Also, the graphs of the pressure coefficient ensured to see the
transition from laminar to turbulent occurred just after highest point of the peak in the
pressure coefficient curve of suction surface. In the figures of the force and moment, the
fluctuations pointed out the separation at post-stall. The CL curves showed that the stall
angle increased and the stall abruptness decreased as Reynolds number raised. More
detailed investigation made by using the oil-flow visualization method. In the oil-flow
visualization and pressure distribution experiments, it was concluded that as the angle of
attack increased the separation point moves towards the leading edge at all Re numbers.
Furthermore, the formation and progress of the separation bubble and re-attached flow
were observed clearly in the oil-flow visualization, pressure distribution and velocity
measurements. It was concluded from the oil-flow visualization results that at lower Re
numbers, short bubble burst at higher angles of attack, which caused long bubble to
occur.
An experimental study on aerodynamics of NACA2415 aerofoil at low Re numbers,
M. Serdar Genc, _Ilyas Karasu, H. Hakan AcıkeL, Experimental Thermal and
Fluid Science 39 (2012) 252–264
This study is a detailed experimental investigation on aerodynamics of a NACA 2415
aerofoil by varying angle of attack from -120 to 200 at low Reynolds number flight
regimes (0.5 x 105 to 3 x 105). Pressure distributions over the aerofoil were measured
using a system including a pitot static tube, a valve unit and a pressure transducer. Time-
dependant lift and drag forces and pitch moment of the aerofoil were obtained by using
an external three-component load-cell system. Velocity measurements at different points
over the aerofoil were carried out by using a hot-wire anemometer, and oil flow
visualization method was used to photograph the surface flow patterns. The experimental
results showed that as the angle of attack increased, the separation and the transition
points moved towards the leading edge at all Reynolds numbers.
2.2 Design of E 387 blade

1
 Selection of airfoil coordinates from airfoil tools website as per suggested blade
specification

2
 Fig4 : E 387 blade profile

Fig5. E 387 blade profile with 50 mm chord length

Fig 6. E 387 blade profile with 70 mm chord length

 Fig7. : E 387 blade profile with 90 mm chord length

 Imported coordinates of E 387 blade from airfoil tools website in excel.

 Use macro command to run and generate profile in CATIA.

Fig.8 ; Surface design of E 387 blade design

 Fig.9 : Closed sketch profile of E 387 blade
 Modeling has been done with the help of www.airfoiltools.com
 Visit the given site
 Go the application select E 387 airfoil generator
 Enter the following values

Chord line = 50, 70 and 100 mm

Number of points = 200
Close trailing edge = yes
 Import the coordinates in MS EXCEL and use macro command and run the main
file and select point 3 to use loft and in CATIA open shape generative design and
it will automatically generate shape in CATIA and close the sketch using thick
surface command.
 DESIGN CAD

Fig10. : CATIA and drafting of E 387 blade

 Fig11. Final blade design

 Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems (or workstations)

to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD
software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality
of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a
database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files
for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The
term CADD (for Computer Aided Design and Drafting) is also used.

Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation (EDA).
In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation (MDA) or computer-
aided drafting (CAD), which includes the process of creating a technical drawing with
the use of computer software.

CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the
objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall
appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the
manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey
information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to
application-specific conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or
curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications,

including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural
design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer
animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals, often called
DCC digital content creation. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that
even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of
by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been
a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both
hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry.

The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally

called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD)

USES:

Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is
used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in
question.

CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within
the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with
other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:

 Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer
Numerical Control (CNC) machines
 Photorealistic rendering and Motion Simulation.
 Document management and revision control using Product Data
Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in
the preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which computer-aided designs of
intended buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to
represent what that locale will be like, where the proposed facilities are allowed to be
built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently
analyzed through the use of CAD.

CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are
history, features, parameterization, and high-level constraints. The construction history
can be used to look back into the model's personal features and work on the single area
rather than the whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the
size, shape, and other properties of the different modeling elements. The features in the
CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile
strength, yield strength, electrical or electromagnetic properties. Also, its stress,
strain, timing or how the element gets affected in certain temperatures, etc.
TYPES:

There are several different types of CAD, each requiring the operator to think differently
about how to use them and design their virtual components in a different manner for
each.

There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and
open-source programs. These provide an approach to the drawing process without all the
fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that accompanied hand drafting since
these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft.

3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used today). Each line
has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties
associated with it and cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes. The
operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D
systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views.

3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real-world objects

(not often used today). Basic three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders,
spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them as if assembling
or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated
from the models. Basic 3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of
components, set limits to their motion, or identify interference between components.

There are two types of 3D Solid Modelling

1. Parametric modelling allows the operator to use what is referred to as "design

intent". The objects and features created are modifiable. Any future
modifications can be made by changing how the original part was created. If a
feature was intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator should
locate it from the center of the model. The feature could be located using any
geometric object already available in the part, but this random placement would
defeat the design intent. If the operator designs the part as it functions the
parametric modeler is able to make changes to the part while maintaining
geometric and functional relationships.
2. Direct or Explicit modelling provide the ability to edit geometry without a history
tree. With direct modelling, once a sketch is used to create geometry the sketch is
incorporated into the new geometry and the designer just modifies the geometry
without needing the original sketch. As with parametric modelling, direct
 modelling has the ability to include relationships between selected geometry
(e.g., tangency, concentricity).

Top end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetics and
ergonomic features into designs. Freeform surface modelling is often combined with
solids to allow the designer to create products that fit the human form and visual
requirements as well as they interface with the machine.

FEA (FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS)

The finite element method (FEM), is a numerical method for solving problems of
engineering and mathematical physics. Typical problem areas of interest
include structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and electromagnetic
potential. The analytical solution of these problems generally require the solution
to boundary value problems for partial differential equations. The finite element method
formulation of the problem results in a system of algebraic equations. The method yields
approximate values of the unknowns at discrete number of points over the domain. To
solve the problem, it subdivides a large problem into smaller, simpler parts that are
called finite elements.

In the first step, the element equations are simple equations that locally
approximate the original complex equations to be studied, where the original equations
are often partial differential equations (PDE). The process, in mathematical language, is
to construct an integral of the inner product of the residual and the weight functions and
set the integral to zero. In simple terms, it is a procedure that minimizes the error of
approximation by fitting trial functions into the PDE. The residual is the error caused by
the trial functions, and the weight functions are polynomial approximation functions that
project the residual. The process eliminates all the spatial derivatives from the PDE, thus
approximating the PDE locally with

 A set of algebraic equations for steady state problems,

 A set of ordinary differential equations for transient problems.

These equation sets are the element equations. They are linear if the underlying
PDE is linear, and vice versa. Algebraic equation sets that arise in the steady state
problems are solved using numerical linear algebra methods, while ordinary differential
equation sets that arise in the transient problems are solved by numerical integration
using standard techniques such as Euler's method or the Runge-Kutta method.

FEM is best understood from its practical application, known as finite element
analysis (FEA). FEA as applied in engineering is a computational tool for
performing engineering analysis. It includes the use of mesh generation techniques for
dividing a complex problem into small elements, as well as the use of software program
coded with FEM algorithm. In applying FEA, the complex problem is usually a physical
system with the underlying physics such as the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation, the heat
equation, or the Navier-Stokes equations expressed in either PDE or integral equations,
while the divided small elements of the complex problem represent different areas in the
physical system.

In present research for analysis ANSYS (Analysis System) software is used. Basically,
its present FEM method to solve any problem. Following are steps in detail
1. Geometry
2. Discretization (Meshing)
3. Boundary condition
4. Solve (Solution)
5. Interpretation of results

12
Workbench contain analysis of different types namely static, modal, harmonic, explicit
dynamics, CFD, ACP tool post, CFX, topology optimization etc. as per problem defined.

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 14
Step 1: Details of material namely copper, steel, grey cast iron, composite material, fluid
domain material is defined in engineering data. i.e. ANSYS default material is structural
steel.
Step 2: Import of geometry created in any CAD software namely CATIA, PRO E,
SOLIDWORK, INVENTOR etc. in geometry section. If any correction is to be made it
can be created in geometry section in Design modeller or space claim.
Step 3: In model section after import of component
 Material is assigned to component as per existing material
 Connection is checked in contact region i.e. bonded, frictionless, frictional, no
separation etc. for multi body components.
 Meshing or discretization is performed i.e. to break components in small pieces
(elements) as per size i.e. preferably tetra mesh and hexahedral mesh for 3D
geometry and for 2 D quad or tria are generally preferred.

Step 4: Boundary condition are applied as per analysis namely in fixed support, pressure,
force, displacement, velocity as per condition.
Step 5: Now problem is well defined and solve option is selected to obtain the solution in
the form of equivalent stress, strain, energy, reaction force etc.
 CHAPTER – No.3
INTRODUCTION TO CFD
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CFD

 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses

numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve
fluid flows.

 CFD is now recognized to be a part of the computer-aided engineering (CAE)

spectrum of tools used extensively today in all industries, and its approach to
modelling fluid flow phenomena allows equipment designers and technical
analysts to have the power of a virtual wind tunnel on their desktop computer.

GOVERNING EQUATIONS USED IN CFD

The basic equations are the three physics laws of conservation,
1. Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation:
In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation states that the rate at which mass enters a
system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system plus the accumulation of
mass within the system
2. Conservation of Momentum: Momentum Equation of Newton’s Second Law
The law of conservation of momentum or principle of momentum conservation states
that the momentum of an isolated system is a constant.
3. Conservation of Energy: First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Equation
This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be
transformed or transferred from one form to another.
1. CAD Design
2. Meshing (2D/ 3D Mesh)
3. Solver
Mesh Import
Boundary conditions
Material Properties
Calculations
Post Processing
3.3 STEPS IN CFD SIMULATION

15

Step 1: Details of material namely copper, steel, grey cast iron, composite material,
fluid domain material is defined in engineering data. i.e. ANSYS default material is
structural steel.
Step 2: Import of geometry created in any CAD software namely CATIA, PRO E,
SOLIDWORK, INVENTOR etc. in geometry section. If any correction is to be made it
can be created in geometry section in Design modeller or space claim.
Step 3: In model section after import of component
 Material is assigned to component as per existing material
 If a body is enclosed in air or water then Enclosure tool is used to cover the
whole body in the form of box, cylindrical or spherical shape to be known as
bounding box for CFD simulation.
 Connection is checked in contact region i.e. bonded, frictionless, frictional, no
separation etc. for multi body components.
 Meshing or discretization is performed i.e. to break components in small pieces
(elements) as per size i.e. preferably tetra mesh and hexahedral mesh for 3D
geometry and for 2 D quad or tria are generally preferred.

Step 4: In CFD named selection is performed namely velocity inlet, pressure outlet,
walls, surrounding etc to know software as our existing condition.
Step 5: In setup following are the steps performed
 In general model gravity is defined in perpendicular direction and energy is kept
on to perform conservation of mass, momentum and energy equation to solve.
 In viscous model k epsilon, realizable and standard wall function is selected to
maintain turbulence flow.
 In model material is selected as air, water, any fluid domain along with solid
material are available.
  In boundary condition inlet velocity, temperature parameter is defined as per our
boundary conditions.
 In solution Hybrid or standard initialization is performed with second order to
obtain good correlated results with accuracy.
 Number of iterations is considered and solved to evaluate results.

Step 6: After the window of solution is complete is initiated CFD post (results) is
opened to view the different contour i.e. temperature, pressure, wall heat flux, heat
transfer coefficient as per requirement.

16

17

18
 Fig.19 : Details of geometry and meshing
 In CFD simulation bounding box is created across blade profile for simulation of
velocity and pressure distribution across surface of blade.
 Fine meshing is performed for CFD simulation.

NAMED SELECTION

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 Fig20. : Details of named selection
 Named selection is performed in CFD to define air inlet, outlet and blade surface.
STEPS IN CFD SIMULATION PROCESS

21
22
 In CFD simulation following are process
 In general model gravity is defined in perpendicular direction and energy is kept
on to perform conservation of mass, momentum and energy equation to solve.
 In viscous model k epsilon, realizable and standard wall function is selected to
maintain turbulence flow.
 Inlet velocity is defined as 180 m/s.
 Hybrid initialization is performed.
 100 number of iterations is considered
Fig23. : Velocity contour

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 25
It is observed that all aerofoil section or profile follow Bernoulli’s equation
It follows Bernoulli’s equation
high velocity = low pressure
low velocity = high pressure
From velocity contour it is observed high velocity at upper surface but low pressure at
upper surface.
So, to produce lift high pressure at lower surface is required

26
It is observed from pressure contour that at upper surface low pressure is observed with
high pressure at bottom surface.
5 probe location are used (Pa)
1381, 1241, 1315, 1414, 1149
In bottom surface pressure of 1300 Pa is observed in below plot
So, lift force is calculated by pressure x surface area of lower surface
lift force = 1300 x 0.0352
lift force = 45.76 N = 4.5 kg
 CHAPTER – No.4
AIRFOIL & NACA NUMBER
4.1 2D CFD SIMULATION FOR COMPARISON OF E 387 AND NACA 0012
PROFILE
• In present 2D CFD simulation is performed to understand difference between
symmetrical (NACA 0012) and unsymmetrical cambered (E 387) aerofoil shape

• To determine pressure contour, velocity contour, lift force, drag force

• To study the effect of stall angle on E 387 surface.

• To study the effect of angle of attack on aerofoil profile.

27

E 387 AIRFOIL SURFACE

ANGLE OF ATTACK – 0 DEGREE

27
 Fig28. Details of named selection

CFD SIMULATION FOR 2D SHAPE AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

29
 Fig30. Pressure contour

Fig31. Velocity contour

Fig32. Pressure coefficient graph for only blade profile

 Fig33. Pressure coefficient graph for all profile mentioned in legend (left)

34
X – DRAG FORCE, Y – LIFT FORCE
DRAG FORCE – 38 N, LIFT FORCE – 1277 N
IN DIRECTION VECTOR 1,0, 0 INDICATES X DIRECTION
IN DIRECTION VECTOR 0, 1, 0 INDICATES Y DIRECTION

NACA 0012 AIRFOIL SURFACE

SYMMETRICAL SURFACE
ANGLE OF ATTACK – 0 DEGREE

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36

37
38
 Fig39. Pressure contour

Fig40. Velocity contour

Fig41. Pressure coefficient graph for only blade profile

 Fig42. Pressure coefficient graph for all profile

DRAG FORCE – 22 N
LIFT FORCE – -5 N NO LIFT FORCE NEARLY NEGLIGIBLE

43
E 387 AIRFOIL SURFACE
ANGLE OF ATTACK – 14 DEGREE
 Fig44. Pressure contour

Fig45. Velocity contour

Fig46. Pressure coefficient graph for only blade profile

 Fig47. Pressure coefficient graph for all profile

DRAG FORCE – 572 N

LIFT FORCE – 7303 N

48
E 387 AIRFOIL SURFACE
ANGLE OF ATTACK – 14 DEGREE

49
 Fig50. Pressure contour

Fig50. Velocity contour

Fig50a. Pressure coefficient graph for only blade profile

 Fig51. Pressure coefficient graph for all profile

DRAG FORCE – 645 N

LIFT FORCE – 5340 N
E 387 AIRFOIL SURFACE
ANGLE OF ATTACK – 26 DEGREE

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53
 Fig54. Pressure contour

Fig55. Velocity contour

IT IS OBSERVED FROM PRESSURE CONTOUR THAT AT BOTH SIDES OF

PROFILE HIGH PRESSURE IS CREATED WHICH LEAD TO STALL IN HIGH
MODE
• Present study concludes that use of E 387 airfoil shape creates lift at 0 degree but
it is not possible by symmetrical blade design.

• Large amount of lift is produced by E387 blade compared to NACA 0012 blade
with same boundary condition (velocity – 180 m/s)
CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION
The conclusion of a design and analysis project for an E378 helicopter rotor blade would
summarize the key findings and their implications. While the specifics would depend
heavily on the project's objectives, methodology (e.g., materials analyzed, software used,
loading conditions considered), and the specific E378 rotor blade design,
• Present research has designed E 387 blade with proper systematic design with the
help of airfoil tool website.

• Present study concludes that use of E 387 airfoil shape creates lift at 0 degree but
it is not possible by symmetrical blade design.

• Large amount of lift is produced by E387 blade compared to NACA 0012 blade
with same boundary condition (velocity – 180 m/s)
REFERENCES
 REFERENCES
1. Passive load alleviation aerofoil concept with variable stiffness multi-stable
composites, Andres F. Arrieta, Izabela K. Kuder, Mathias Rist, Tobias Waeber, Paolo
Ermanni, Composite Structures 116 (2014) 235–242
2.Investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of an aerofoil shaped fuselage UAV
model, G.M. Jahangir Alama, Md. Mamun, Md. Abu. Taher Alib, Md. Quamrul Islamb,
K. M. Sadrul Islamc, 10th International Conference on Mechanical Engineering, ICME
2013, Procedia Engineering 90 ( 2014 ) 225 – 231
3.Aerofoil broadband and tonal noise modelling using stochastic sound sources and
incorporated large scale fluctuations, S. Proskurov, O.R. Darbyshire , S.A. Karabasov,
Journal of Sound and Vibration 411 (2017) 60e74
4.Experimental investigation on the performance of NACA 4412 aerofoil with curved
leading edge planform, M. Nazmul Haquea, Mohammad Alia , Ismat Ara, 6th BSME
International Conference on Thermal Engineering (ICTE 2014), Procedia Engineering
105 ( 2015 ) 232 – 240
5.Nonlinear modelling and control of the flow over aerofoils using CFD simulations,
H.D. Karaca , G.D. Özen, C. Kasnako ˘glu, Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory
67 (2016) 29–43
6.Leading- and trailing-edge effects on the aeromechanics of membrane airfoils, Sara
Arbo´ s-Torrent, Bharathram Ganapathi subramani, RafaelPalacios, Journal of Fluids and
Structures 38 (2013) 107–126
7.An experimental study on aerodynamics of NACA2415 aerofoil at low Re numbers,
M. Serdar Genc, Ilyas Karasu, H. Hakan Acıkel, Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science 39 (2012) 252–264
8.www.airfoiltools.com
9. www.youtube.com
10. www.google.com