Complete Comprehensive Notes on "Delhi Sultans" by Satish

Chandra (Chapters 1-9)

INTRODUCTION

The study encompasses India from approximately 700-1412 CE,

examining the transition from regional fragmentation through Turkish
incursions to the establishment and eventual decline of the Delhi
Sultanate1. The analysis draws from Persian chronicles (Barani, Amir
Khusrau), inscriptions, and archaeological evidence, with critical
evaluation of source biases1. Key themes include the tension between
military conquest and administrative consolidation, Islam-Hindu
interactions, urbanization, agrarian transformation, and evolving cultural
syntheses1.

CHAPTER ONE – INDIA ON THE EVE OF TURKISH INVASION (c. 700–

1000)

Political Fragmentation and Regional Powers

The post-Gupta period witnessed significant political fragmentation across

the subcontinent1. Three major dynasties dominated different regions:

 Pratiharas: Controlled Western Malwa to Kannauj, serving as the

primary power in northern India

 Palas: Ruled Bengal-Bihar, maintaining Buddhist traditions and

maritime connections

 Rashtrakutas: Dominated the Deccan, engaging in complex three-

way struggles for supremacy

Feudalization and Administrative Changes

The period saw the rise of feudalization through extensive land grants
(brahmadeya, agrahara) to Brahmans, fundamentally altering the political
landscape1. This system created a new class of local landed chiefs
(samantas) who gradually assumed greater autonomy from central
authority1. The military structure evolved significantly, with cavalry forces
expanding from the 8th century onward, elephant corps maintaining
importance, and fortifications being constructed at strategic river
crossings1.

Economic and Social Conditions

The economy remained fundamentally village-based and agrarian, with

diversified cropping patterns including rice, pulses, and oilseeds1.
Irrigation systems relied on wells and tanks, supporting agricultural
productivity1. Urban centers flourished with specialized crafts: Banaras
became renowned for brocade production, while Gurjara-Pratihara
territories excelled in bronze work1. Gujarat's ports facilitated extensive
maritime trade connections1.

The varna-jati hierarchy remained dominant, with limited caste mobility1.

Temple patronage became central to local political authority, creating
powerful religious-economic institutions1.

Religious Movements and Cultural Developments

Bhakti and Tantric Shaivite sects flourished across northern India, while
Buddhist influence declined significantly by the 11th century1. Major
centers of learning at Nalanda and Vikramashila maintained scholarly
traditions1. Islamic presence began through Arab traders on the western
coast, with Sufi orders like the Chishti beginning to establish roots in
Punjab by the 12th century1.

Vulnerability to Invasion

The Pratihara decline left northwestern frontier passes inadequately

defended, creating opportunities for external invasion1. Meanwhile, slave-
soldier states emerging in Khurasan and Transoxiana, combined with
Abbasid decentralization, drew Turkish military leaders toward India as a
target for expansion1.

CHAPTER TWO – GHOR AND THE GHAZNAVIDS (c. 879–1192)

Ghaznavid State Formation and Ideology

Alp-Tigin's seizure of Ghazni around 963 CE marked the beginning of a

new phase in Central Asian politics1. Under Sabuktigin's expansion into
Samanid domains and Mahmud's accession in 998, the Ghaznavids
developed a distinctive blend of military pragmatism and religious
ideology1.

The ghazi ideology combined jihadi zeal with plunder motives, creating a
powerful justification for continuous warfare1. This warrior-missionary type
became central to Ghaznavid identity and expansion1. Simultaneously,
the Ghaznavids patronized Persian cultural renaissance, with Firdausi's
court position resulting in the legendary Shah-Namah1. Mahmud's claimed
descent from the legendary Iranian king Afrasiyab demonstrated the
cultural Persianization of Turkish rulers1.

Mahmud's Indian Campaigns

Mahmud conducted seventeen campaigns into India between 1000-1025

CE, fundamentally altering the political landscape1. His primary targets
included:
Hindu-Shahi Conflicts: Systematic campaigns against Jayapala and
Anandapala, capturing key positions at Peshawar, Waihind, and ultimately
pushing Ghaznavid borders to the Jhelum river1.

Temple Raids: Famous expeditions targeted Thanesar, Mathura, Kalinjar,

and culminated in the spectacular 1025 Somnath campaign with 30,000
cavalry1. These raids combined religious symbolism with massive wealth
extraction1.

Strategic Impact: The conquest of Punjab and Multan broke India's outer
mountain barrier, creating a permanent Turkish presence that would
influence north Indian politics for centuries1.

Ghurid Rise and Conquest

The Ghurid ascendancy under Ghiyath al-Din and Mu'izz al-Din

(Muhammad of Ghor) represented a new phase of Turkish expansion1.
Their annexation of Multan and Uchch (1175-90) established forward
bases for deeper Indian penetration1.

The Battles of Tarain (1191-92) proved decisive: the first battle saw
Ghurid defeat, but the second established permanent Turkish rule at
Delhi1. This victory marked the transition from raiding to conquest and
settlement1.

CHAPTER THREE – DELHI SULTANATE I: THE MAMELUK SULTANS

(1206–1290)

Foundation and Early Consolidation

Qutb-ud-Din Aibak (1206-1210) established the first independent

Turkish power center, moving from Lahore to Delhi and beginning the
iconic Qutb complex construction1. His slave origins demonstrated the
meritocratic aspects of Turkish military hierarchy1.

Iltutmish (1210-1236) served as the true consolidator of Turkish

power1. His major achievements included:

 Defeating rival Ghurid lieutenants (Yalduz at Ghazni, Qubacha at

Multan)

 Securing formal recognition from the Abbasid caliph

 Territorial reconquest of Punjab, Bengal-Bihar (defeating Iwaz

Ghiyas)

 Administrative reforms including formalization of the iqta system

 Introduction of the silver tanka currency

Razia Sultan's Reign (1236-1239)

Razia's succession represented unprecedented female political authority
in medieval India1. Her brief but significant reign featured:

 Systematic conflict with Turkish nobles (chihalgani) who sought to

control royal authority

 Military leadership including personal command of troops while

unveiled

 Administrative reforms aimed at creating loyalty networks outside

traditional Turkish nobility

 Ultimate defeat and death following alliance with Altunia,

demonstrating the limits of royal innovation1

Balban's "Blood and Iron" Era (1266-1287)

Balban's assumption of power marked the establishment of strong

centralized monarchy1. His policies included:

Court Rituals: Introduction of sijda and paibos (prostration and foot-

kissing) to emphasize royal dignity1

Administrative Control: Extensive spy networks, harsh justice that

spared no one regardless of rank, and systematic elimination of Turkish
noble opposition1

Military Organization: Reorganization of the diwan-i-arz, pensioning of

unfit soldiers, and maintenance of constant military readiness1

Frontier Defense: Establishment of the Beas line defense system against

Mongol incursions1

Mongol Threat and Frontier Management

The Mongol challenge fundamentally shaped Sultanate development1.

Key phases included:

Initial Contact (1221): Genghis Khan's pursuit of Jalal-ud-Din Khwarizmi

to the Indus, with Iltutmish's diplomatic refusal of asylum preventing
immediate invasion1

Sustained Pressure (1241-1306): Multiple Mongol campaigns including

the 1241 sack of Lahore, 1299 siege of Delhi under Qutlugh-Khwaja, and
1303 sustained siege of Siri1

Successful Defense: The Sultanate's ability to repel Mongol invasions

demonstrated military effectiveness that exceeded contemporary Central
and West Asian states1
CHAPTER FOUR – DELHI SULTANATE II: KHALJI & EARLY TUGHLAQ
ERAS (1290–1351)

The Khalji Revolution (1290)

Jalal-ud-Din Khalji's overthrow of the Turkic line ended Turkish monopoly

over high offices1. This revolution welcomed non-Turkish sections into the
nobility, including mixed Turkish-Afghan origins1. The Khalji period
demonstrated increasing inclusivity in administrative recruitment while
maintaining military effectiveness1.

Alauddin Khalji's Transformative Reign (1296-1316)

Alauddin's accession through the treacherous murder of his uncle initiated

an era of systematic reform and expansion1.

Administrative Repression: Wholesale massacre of Mongol settlers,

prohibition of banquets and festivities, extensive spy networks, and harsh
punishment of rebellious family members1.

Military Conquests:

 Rajasthan campaigns: Conquest of Ranthambhor (1301) with

jauhar ceremony, Chittor (1303) with legendary Padmini story, and
systematic subjugation of Rajput states1

 Gujarat annexation (1299): Rapid conquest suggesting internal

weakness of Gujarat ruler1

 Deccan expeditions: Malik Kafur's campaigns (1309-11) reaching

Warangal, Dwar-Samudra, and Madurai, establishing tribute
systems1

Economic Innovations: Market control system with fixed prices for grain,
cloth, horses, and slaves; land revenue raised to 50% in Doab region; cash
payment system for 300,000-strong army1.

Tughlaq Dynasty Establishment and Expansion

Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (1320-1324) established the dynasty after

overthrowing Khusrau Khan1. His campaigns in Bengal and Orissa and
construction of Tughlaqabad demonstrated renewed royal authority1.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1324-1351) represented both the zenith and

beginning of decline1. His major initiatives included:

Capital Transfer Experiment: Compulsory migration of Delhi elite to

Daulatabad (1327-29) aimed at controlling south India but resulted in high
mortality and ultimate failure1
Token Currency: Introduction of bronze coins equal to silver tankas,
leading to massive forgery, devaluation, and eventual withdrawal with
heavy treasury losses1

Military Schemes: Massive army recruitment for Khurasan project

against Mongols, abandoned due to costs and diplomatic changes1

Qarachil Expedition: Disastrous Himalayan campaign with only 10

survivors from 10,000 troops1

Agrarian Policies: Diwan-i-amir-i-kohi department for agricultural

improvement, arbitrary assessments during famines, and systematic
peasant flight1

CHAPTER FIVE – THE AGE OF CONFLICT (c. 1000–1200)

West and Central Asian Upheavals

The late 9th century Abbasid decline created opportunities for Islamized
Turks to emerge as autonomous rulers1. Political fragmentation,
mercenary fickleness, and continuous tribal warfare characterized this
period1. Turkish military advantages included superior horses, exceptional
mobility, and lightning raid tactics that could cover incredible distances1.

North Indian Political Vacuum

The Gurjara-Pratihara empire's dissolution created political uncertainty

while aggressive Turkish states emerged on the northwestern border1.
The frontier region from Kabul to Qandahar (al-Hind) contained significant
Buddhist and Hindu populations, including the famous 53.5-meter
Bamiyan Buddha with residence caves for 1,000 monks1.

Rajput State Formation and Characteristics

The Pratihara collapse enabled numerous Rajput states to emerge1. Major

dynasties included:

 Gahadavalas of Kanauj: Extended from Mongyr to Delhi under

Govind Chandra

 Paramaras of Malwa: Ruled by the polymath Bhoja

 Chauhans of Ajmer: Established by Vigraharaj who captured

Chittor and built Ajmer

 Prithviraj III: Ruled 1177-1192, rapid expansion but rivalry with

Gahadavalas prevented unified resistance1

Social Organization: Clan-based egalitarianism within Rajputs, exclusive

toward non-Rajputs (only ~10% of population even in Rajasthan), warfare
treated as sport with Dussehra campaigns1.
Military Weaknesses: Feudal fragmentation, lack of central standing
forces, poor cavalry organization, absence of mounted archers, and
strategic myopia regarding frontier recovery1.

Temple Architecture and Cultural Achievements

The period marked peak temple construction in the nagara style1.

Outstanding examples included:

 Khajuraho group: Parsvanatha, Visvanatha, and Kandariya

Mahadeo temples

 Orissa temples: Lingaraja (11th century), Konark Sun Temple (13th

century), Jagannatha at Puri

 Architectural features: Tall curved spiral roofs (shikhara),

elaborate mandapas, rich sculptural decoration1

CHAPTER SIX – DELHI SULTANATE I (c. 1200–1400)

Turkish Consolidation Process

Post-Tarain Turkish expansion proceeded systematically eastward1. Qutb-

ud-Din Aibak's independence from Ghazni (1206-10) established
autonomous Indian Turkish rule1. His accidental death while playing
chaugan (polo) demonstrated the personal risks of medieval rulership1.

Administrative Development

The Sultanate developed sophisticated administrative systems1. Provincial

organization through iqtas parceled among Turkish nobles gradually
evolved toward greater central control1. The development from near-
autonomous muqtis to cash-salaried officials with audited accounts
demonstrated increasing administrative sophistication1.

Internal Rebellions and Territorial Consolidation

Bengal repeatedly asserted independence under leaders like Iwaz (d.

1227), Tughril (killed 1280), and Bughra Khan's dynasty (c. 1287-1324)1.
The Katehariya Rajputs' suppression involved large-scale massacre and
depopulation, with jungle clearance and road construction to ensure
permanent control1.

Military and Strategic Developments

The Sultanate's military evolution included adoption of iron stirrups,

extensive use of armor, and development of siege warfare capabilities1.
The tribal structure combined with iqta-khalisa systems enabled
maintenance of large standing armies superior to feudal Rajput forces1.
CHAPTER SEVEN – DELHI SULTANATE II: KHALJIS & TUGHLAQS
(1290–1412)

Khalji Military Expansion

Alauddin Khalji's conquests systematically extended Sultanate control1.

The Gujarat campaign (1299) demonstrated rapid expansion capabilities,
while Rajasthan campaigns established tributary relationships with Muslim
garrisons in key towns1. Deccan expeditions under Malik Kafur reached
unprecedented geographical extent, bringing wealth and establishing
tribute systems1.

Tughlaq Administrative Experiments

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign represented both imperial zenith and the
beginning of disintegration1. His experimental approach included:

 Rational administration: Merit-based appointments regardless of

birth, including appointments from traditionally low-status groups

 Agricultural development: Diwan-i-amir-i-kohi for cultivation

improvement, loan systems for farmers, promotion of cash crops

 Currency innovation: Token currency experiment reflecting

understanding of monetary principles but lacking implementation
capability

Firuz Shah's Consolidation and Decline

Firuz Tughlaq (1351-1388) adopted conciliatory policies toward nobles,

theologians, and army1. His reforms included:

 Hereditary offices: Positions and iqtas became hereditary,

creating stability but reducing administrative efficiency

 Welfare measures: Hospitals, unemployment assistance, dowries

for poor girls, translation of Sanskrit works

 Infrastructure development: 200-kilometer Sutlej-Hansi canal,

Yamuna canal, new towns (Hissar-i-Firuzah, Firuzabad)

 Slave system: 180,000 slaves for workshops and bodyguard,

demonstrating scale of royal household

Disintegration and Timur's Invasion

Post-Firuz succession struggles, autonomous provincial governors, and

military decline reduced Sultanate control to "Delhi to Palam"1. Timur's
1398 invasion resulted in massive destruction, Delhi's sack, and artisan
deportation to Samarqand1. The invasion marked the effective end of
centralized Sultanate authority1.
CHAPTER EIGHT – GOVERNMENT, ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE

Political Structure and Administration

The Sultan: Supreme political, military, and legal authority with

responsibility for state security, administration, and justice1. No fixed
succession law meant military strength and noble support determined
accession1.

Central Departments:

 Wazir: Finance head with Auditor and Accountant General

 Diwan-i-Arz: Military department under Ariz-i-mamalik

 Diwan-i-Risalat: Religious endowments and justice

 Diwan-i-Insha: State correspondence

 Intelligence (barid): Information gathering system1

Provincial Administration: Evolution from autonomous muqtis to cash-

salaried officials with audited accounts1. Below provinces were shiqs and
parganas, with village administration through khuts (landowners) and
muqaddams (headmen)1.

Economic Development and Trade

Currency and Urban Growth: Stable silver tanka and copper jital
system supported urban expansion1. Major cities included Delhi,
Daulatabad, Lahore, Multan, and Cambay1.

Trade Networks:

 Exports: Bengal silk and muslin, Gujarat cotton, indigo, sugar, ivory

 Imports: Horses (Arab-Iraqi-Turki), porcelain, raw silk from China

 Merchant communities: Multanis (overland trade), Khurasanis,

Gujarati Bohras, Marwari and Jain traders1

Infrastructure: Grand Trunk Road from Peshawar to Sonargaon, Delhi-

Daulatabad highway, relay runner systems enabling fruit and Ganga water
transport to distant courts1.

Technological and Industrial Innovation

New technologies included paper manufacturing, glass production,

spinning wheels, cotton carding improvements, and advanced loom
designs1. The Persian wheel (rahat) revolutionized irrigation, while
superior lime-mortar enabled arch and dome construction1. Metallurgical
advances supported armor production for expanded cavalry forces1.
Social Hierarchy and Conditions

Nobility: Initially Turkish, later inclusive of Iranians, Afghans, and Indian

converts1. Lavish lifestyle with palaces, extensive servant staffs, and
massive incomes (Khan-i-Jahan's 15 lakh tankas annually)1.

Slavery: Extensive use of war captives and purchased slaves for domestic
service, craft workshops, and bodyguard corps1. Firuz's 180,000 slaves
illustrate the scale, with talented slaves achieving high positions1.

Artisans and Labor: Monthly wages of 1½-2 tankas under Alauddin, with
basic food costs enabling subsistence1. Urban wages supported soldiers
and clerks but created hardship for manual laborers1.

Religious and Social Relations

State Character: Formally Islamic but balanced sharia with zawabit

(state laws)1. Sultans prevented theologian political control while
maintaining religious symbolism1.

Hindu Status: Zimmis (protected people) paying jizyah tax, with

Brahmans exempt until Firuz1. Administrative reliance on Hindu rural
gentry and clerks despite official Islamic identity1.

Social Continuity: Hindu caste hierarchies remained unchanged, with

early marriage, widow-remarriage restrictions, and property rights for
sonless widows1. Purdah adoption among upper classes from West Asian
influence1.

CHAPTER NINE – CULTURE, ART & ARCHITECTURE

Indo-Islamic Architectural Synthesis

Early Development: Qutb Minar complex represented initial Indo-Islamic

synthesis, reusing temple pillars while introducing true arches and
domes1. Composite animal-floral motifs demonstrated cultural blending1.

Technological Innovation: Transition from corbelled to true voussoir

arches, superior stucco-lime mortar techniques, and regional style
development in Jaunpur-Lucknow, Bengal, and Gujarat1.

Urban Planning and Royal Patronage

New Cities: Siri, Tughlaqabad, and Firuzabad featured fortified designs

with grid layouts1. Royal sarais and caravanserais along highways
facilitated trade and communication1.

Public Works: Canal systems, step-wells (baolis), and Charbagh garden

layouts demonstrated hydraulic engineering1. Mosques incorporated large
courtyards, minarets, and madrasa-inscription bands1.
Literature and Linguistic Development

Persian Dominance: Court language for administration, chronicles

(Barani's Tarikh-i-Firozshahi), and literary works1. Administrative manuals
and diplomatic correspondence standardized Persian usage1.

Vernacular Evolution: Apabhramsha and early Hindi poetry

development, with Jain contributions through scholars like Hemchandra1.
Early Bengali inscriptions marked regional linguistic development1.

Fine Arts and Crafts

Manuscript Arts: Luxury Qur'ans and Persian works with gold-leaf

illumination and lacquered bindings1. Court patronage supported skilled
calligraphers and artists1.

Metalwork and Ceramics: Bidri ware development, silver niello

techniques, and inlaid steel work1. Multan lustreware and Deccan black
basalt sculptures demonstrated regional specialization1.

Musical and Performance Traditions

Court Music: Persianate forms including rabab and early tabla

development1. Sufi devotional music (qasida, ghazal) spread through
mystical networks1. Itinerant musicians facilitated cultural transmission
across regions1.

CONCLUSION

The period from 700-1412 CE witnessed India's transformation from

regional fragmentation through Turkish conquest to sophisticated
sultanate administration and eventual political disintegration1. The
narrative encompasses military collision between ghazi states and Rajput
polities, swift Turkish consolidation, dynamic yet often over-ambitious
reforms under Khalji-Tughlaq monarchs, and persistent societal
continuities including caste hierarchies and agrarian dominance alongside
urban commercial efflorescence1.

The Delhi Sultanate's legacy includes administrative innovations later

adopted by regional successors and the Mughal Empire, architectural
syntheses creating Indo-Islamic traditions, technological introductions
revolutionizing agriculture and industry, and cultural interactions that
fundamentally altered Indian civilization while preserving essential
continuities1. The period demonstrates both the possibilities and
limitations of medieval state formation, religious accommodation, and
cross-cultural synthesis in the Indian subcontinent1.
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