Introduction:

The history of computing started off with centralized computers (in many cases mainframes) or
servers performing all the calculations. Client computers were then attached to these
centralised computers (servers) and if you wanted to calculate something, you would have to
wait for the central computer to respond. As computing power got cheaper, client nodes became
more powerful and the central computer less important.

Client server model:

The client–server model is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or workloads
between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters,
called clients.

Often clients and servers communicate over a computer network on separate hardware, but
both client and server may reside in the same system.

Server: a computer program running to serve the requests of other programs, the "clients"
Servers are software programs that in most cases run off normal computing hardware.
Server software includes:

 Printing
 File sharing
 Game hosting
 Websites
 Other web services
Client: an application or system that accesses a service made available by a server
Clients are software programs and processes that connect to servers, sending requests and
receiving responses.

Client examples include:

 Web browser page requests

 Chat systems on mobile phones
 Online games

A server host runs one or more server programs which share their resources with clients.

A client does not share any of its resources, but requests a server's content or service.

Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers which await incoming requests.

Examples of computer applications that use the client–server model are Email, network
printing, and the World Wide Web.

Most networks are controlled by the use of servers. There are different types of servers, for
example:

File servers: allows user to save and load data files.

Application server: deals with the distribution of applications software to each

client/node/computer

Print server: ensures that printing from devices on the network is done in queue

Proxy server: acts as a buffer between WAN (usually internet) and LAN.

Web Server: A web server provides access to a web application. The client is the
web browser software.

World Wide Web:

The term “WWW” refers to the “World Wide Web” or simply the Web. The World Wide Web
consists of all the public Web sites connected to the Internet worldwide, including the client
devices (such as computers and cell phones) that access
Web content. The WWW is just one of many applications
of the Internet and computer networks.

Internet:
The Internet is named for "interconnection of computer
networks". It is a massive hardware combination of
millions of personal, business, and governmental
computers, all connected like roads and highways.

The Internet started in the 1960's under the original name "ARPAnet". ARPAnet was originally
an experiment in how the US military could maintain communications in case of a possible
nuclear strike. With time, ARPAnet became a civilian experiment, connecting university
mainframe computers for academic purposes.
As personal computers became more mainstream in the 1980's and 1990's, the Internet grew
exponentially as more users plugged their computers into the massive network. Today, the
Internet has grown into a public spider web of millions of personal, government, and commercial
computers, all connected by cables and by wireless signals.

No single person owns the Internet. No single government has authority over its operations.
Some technical rules and hardware/software standards enforce how people plug into the
Internet, but for the most part, the Internet is a free and open broadcast medium of hardware
networking.

It is important to understand that the Internet is

not a WAN; it is the biggest internetwork in
existence. Furthermore, it has never been
designed as a coherent entity; it has just
evolved to reach its current form and is still
evolving to whatever future form it will take.
There is no agreed definition of its structure;
however, there is a hierarchical aspect to the
structure particularly with respect to the role of
an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Access ISP’s or Tier-3:
The initial function of the ISP was to give
Internet access to an individual or company. This function is now performed by what may be
described as an 'access ISP'.
Regional ISPs or Tier-2:
Access ISPs might then connect to what might be called 'middle tier' or regional ISPs which in
turn are connected to tier1 lSPs.
Internet Backbone or Tier-1:

Tier-1 ISPs are also known as Internet backbone ISPs. An ISP is a network and connections
between ISPs are handled by Internet Exchange Points (IXPs). The other networks which can
be considered to share the top of the hierarchy with tier1 lSPs are the major content providers.
Although the Internet has grown away from the single-backbone architecture of the
ARPANET described earlier, it retains a certain hierarchical structure.
At the lowest level, Internet subscribers connect to an Internet service provider (ISP). In
many cases, that ISP is one of many small providers in the local geographic area
(called local ISPs).

These local ISPs in turn are the customers of larger ISPs that cover an entire geographic
region such as a state or a group of adjacent states. These larger ISPs are called regional
service providers.

The regional service providers, in turn, connect to large ISPs with high-speed backbones
spanning a national or global area. These largest providers are the network service
providers, these various providers are referred to as Tier III, Tier II, and Tier I providers,
respectively.

(NAPs) Network Access Points:

At the highest level, the (NSPs) network service providers interconnect via network
access points (NAPs). A Network Access Point (NAP) was a public network exchange facility
where Internet service providers (ISPs) connected with one another in peering arrangements,
across which different providers can exchange routes and data traffic.

Networking Hardware
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Any computer that is to be connected to a network needs to have a network interface card
(NIC). Most modern computers have these devices built into the motherboard, but in some
computers you have to add an extra expansion card (small circuit board)
Some computers, such as laptops, have two NICs: one for wired connections, and one for
wireless connections (which uses radio signals instead of wires)
In a laptop, the wireless radio antenna is usually built in to the side of the screen, so you don't
need to have a long bit of plastic sticking out the side of your computer!
Hub:
A hub is a device that connects a number of computers together to make a LAN. The typical
use of a hub is at the centre of a star network (or as part of a hybrid network) - the hub has
cables plugged into it from each computer
.
A hub is a „dumb‟ device: if it receives a message, it sends it to every computer on the
network. This means that hub-based networks are not very secure - everyone can listen in to
communications.
Hubs are pretty much obsolete now (you can't buy them any more), having been superseded by
cheap switches.

Switch
A switch, like a hub, is a device that connects a number of computers together to make a LAN.
The typical use of a switch is at the centre of a star network (or as part of a hybrid network) -
the switch has cables plugged into it from each computer. A switch is a more „intelligent‟ device
than a hub: if it receives a message, it checks who it is addressed to, and only sends it to that
specific computer. Because of this, networks that use switches are more secure than those
that use hubs, but also a little more expensive.
Router

A router is a network device that connects together two or more networks. A common use of
a router is to join a home or business network (LAN) to the Internet (WAN). The router will
typically have the Internet cable plugged into it, as well as a cable, or cables to computers on
the LAN.
Alternatively, the LAN connection might be wireless (WiFi), making the device a wireless
router. (A wireless router is actually a router and wireless switch combined)
Routers are the devices that join together the various different networks that together make up
the Internet. These routers are much more complex than the one you might have in your home

Proxy Server:
A proxy server is a computer
setup to share a resource,
usually an Internet
connection. Other computers
can request a web page via the
proxy server. The proxy server
will then get the page using its
Internet connection, and pass it
back to the computer who
asked for it. Proxy servers are
often used instead of router
since additional software can
be easily installed on the
computer such as anti-virus, web filtering etc.

Bridge:
A bridge is a network device that typically links together two different parts of a LAN.
A router is usually used to link a LAN to a WAN (such as the Internet), whereas a bridge links
independent parts of a LAN so that they act as a single LAN.
Firewall
A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is placed between your computer and the rest
of the network (where the hackers are!)

If you wish to protect your whole LAN from hackers out on the Internet, you would place a
firewall between the LAN and the Internet connection.

A firewall blocks unauthorized connections being made to your computer or LAN. Normal
data is allowed through the firewall (e.g. e-mails or web pages) but all other data is blocked.
In addition to physical devices, firewalls can also be software. In fact most computer operating
systems have a software firewall built in (e.g. Windows, Linux and Mac OS)
 Hardware firewall advantages:
 A single hardware firewall can protect your entire network
 They run on their own dedicated CPU and memory not taking away computer resources
 Hardware firewalls can not be disabled by malware as easily as software firewalls can
 A single hardware firewall can protect multiple computers not needing a license for each
computer
 Hardware firewalls still protect the computer when the operating system crashes

Hardware firewall disadvantages:

 A single router firewall is considerably more expensive than a license for a single software
firewall
 Hardware firewalls are more difficult to configure than software firewalls
 Hardware firewalls need physical space where to install it and cable layout
 A hardware firewall protecting the whole network will affect multiple computers if it fails

Gateway:
A gateway is a network node connecting two networks that use different protocols.

The term Gateway is used in networking to describe the “Gate” to the Internet. The
Gateway controls traffic that travels from the inside network to the Internet and provides
security from traffic that wants to enter the inside network from the Internet. The
Gateway is often the router that home owners or businesses use to connect to the
Internet. Because some networks may have a number of connections to several other
internal networks the term “Default Gateway” is used to signify the route for traffic which
is the first choice.
Gateways can take several forms -- including
routers or computers -- and can perform a
variety of tasks. These range from simply
passing traffic on to the next hop on its path to
offering complex traffic filtering, proxies or
protocol translations at various network layers.

The most common gateway is

the internet gateway, which connects a
home or enterprise network to the internet.
An internet gateway also often acts as a
security node, variously filling one or more
security roles, such as proxy
server, firewall or network address
translation (NAT) server

In most IP-based networks, the only traffic

that doesn't go through at least one gateway is traffic flowing among nodes on the same
local area network (LAN) segment -- for example, computers connected to the
same switch.

The following other types of gateways focus on higher protocol layers:

 Web application firewalls filter traffic to and from a web server and look at application-
layer data;
 Cloud storage gateways translate storage requests with various cloud storage service
 API, SOA or XML gateways manage traffic flowing into and out of a service

Difference between Router & Gateway:

A gateway acts as a conversion from one protocol to another or in the case of Voice
over IP (VoIP) from the VoIP (Voice over internet protocol) network to the POTS (Plain
Old Telephone Service) network.

A router works by looking at the IP address in the data packet and decides if it is for
internal use or if the packet should move outside the network (to the WAN).
Transmission media
Network Cables
To connect together different devices to make up a network, you need cables. Cables are still
used in most networks, rather than using only wireless, because they can carry much more data
per second, and are more secure (less open to hacking).

The most common type of network cable in use today looks like the one shown above, with
plastic plugs on the ends that snap into sockets on the network devices. Inside the cable are
several copper wires (some used for sending data in one direction, and some for the other
direction).

Cable:
The options for a cable are twisted pair, coaxial or fibre-optic. (The first two use copper for the
transmission medium.)
In discussing suitability for a given application there are a number of factors to consider. One is
the cost of the cable and connecting devices. Another is the bandwidth achievable, which
governs the possible data transmission rate. There are then two factors that can cause poor
performance: the likelihood of interference affecting transmitted signals and the extent of
attenuation (deterioration of the signal) when high frequencies are transmitted. These two
factors affect the need for repeaters or amplifiers in transmission lines. Table 2.01 shows some
comparisons of the different cable types.

Fiber optics
Fibre optic cabling is made from glass that becomes very
flexible when it is thin. Light is passed through the cable
using a transmitter. Light travels quickly through the
light-reflecting internal wall of the cable.

The transmitter in the router sends light pulses

representing binary code. When the data is received, it
is decoded back to its binary form and the computer displays the message.
 Fiber optics is a technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data.
A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of
transmitting messages modulated onto light waves.

Advantages

 the individual cables are thinner, so larger

quantities of cable can be joined together
compared to copper
 there is less interference than copper
 there is less chance for degeneration

Disadvantages

 replacing copper with fibre optic

cabling is expensive
 They are more fragile than wire and
are difficult to splice.
Uses:

Optical fibers are used most often as a

means to transmit light between the two
 ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where they permit
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables
In submarine communications cables laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to
carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean. ... Modern cables use optical
fiber technology to carry digital data, which includes telephone, Internet and private data
traffic.
Record speeds [Wikipedia]

 2006 – Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation transferred 14 terabits per second over a
single 160 km long optical fiber
 2009 – Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France transferred 100 Gbit/s over 7000 km fiber
 2010 – Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France transferred 100 petabits per second.
 2010 – Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation transferred 69.1 Tbit/s over a single
240 km fiber multiplexing 432 channels, equating to 171 Gbit/s per channel
 2012 – Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation transferred 1 Petabit per second over 50
kilometers over a single fiber

Copper cable

Copper cable uses electrical signals to pass data between networks. There are three
types of copper cable: coaxial, unshielded twisted pair and shielded twisted pair.

 Coaxial degenerates over

long distances.

Coaxial Cables
Invented back in the 1880s,
"coax" was best known as the
kind of cable that connected
television sets to home
antennas. Coaxial cable is
also a standard for
10 Mbps Ethernet cables.

A conducting wire surrounded

by a plastic non-conducting layer, which is in turn
covered by a cylinder of conducting material and finally
surrounded by PVC jacket.

3
 Twisted Pair Cables
Twisted pair eventually emerged during the 1990s as the leading cabling standard
for Ethernet, starting with 10 Mbps (10BASE-T, also known as Category 3 or Cat3),
later followed by improved versions for 100 Mbps (100BASE-TX, Cat5 and Cat5e) and
successively higher speeds up to 10 Gbps (10GBASE-T).

Ethernet twisted pair cables contain up to 8 wires wound together in pairs to minimize
electromagnetic interference.

Two primary types of twisted pair cable industry standards are defined –

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).

Modern Ethernet cables use UTP wiring due to its

lower cost, while STP cabling can be found in some
other types of networks such as FDDI.

 Unshielded twisted pair is made by twisting the

copper cables around each other and this reduces
degeneration.

 Shielded twisted pair uses copper shielding around

the twisted wires to make them less susceptible to
interference.

14
 The extra covering in shielded twisted pair wiring protects the transmission line
from electromagnetic interference leaking into or out of the cable. STP cabling often
is used in Ethernet networks, especially fast data rate Ethernets. Contrast with UTP.

Advantages

 a cabled telephone can be powered directly from the copper cable, so the phone will
still work if there is a loss of power
 copper can be cheaper to set up than fibre optic cabling

Disadvantages

 degenerates over long distances

Wireless Communication:
Radio waves are an electromagnetic radiation with differing wavelengths. These waves
are similar to an ocean wave. Radio waves are used for many processes. For example
they are used to broadcast TV, in communication between satellites and it enables
computers to share information without wires.

Radio waves have a large wavelength so they experience less interference and can
travel over large distances.
However, since they do not have a high frequency, they cannot transmit as much data.

15
However, they can carry more signals than wires; they are often used for linking
buildings on a college campus or corporate site and increasingly for longer distances as
telephone companies update their networks.

Microwave transmission: refers to the technology of transmitting information by

the use of electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are measured in centimeters;
these are called microwaves. This part of the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies
of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30
centimeters down to 1 cm.

Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small
wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which
can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna.

This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without
interfering with each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Another advantage is
that the high frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large
information-carrying capacity; the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all
the rest of the radio spectrum below it. The attenuation of microwave is less than
twisted pair or coaxial cable.

A disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation; they cannot
pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can. It is also affected
by anything blocking the line of sight, such as rainfall.

Satellite
is any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path. The moon is Earth's
natural satellite at 240,000 miles distant. Other satellites that fulfil this definition are man-made
and have been launched into orbit to carry out specific functions. These satellites are typically
between 100 and 24,000 miles away.
Satellites have many purposes including data communications, scientific applications and
weather analysis. Satellite transmission requires an unobstructed line of sight. The line of site
will be between the orbiting satellite
and a station on Earth. Satellite
signals must travel in straight lines
but do not have the limitations of
ground based wireless
transmission, such as the curvature
of the Earth.

Microwave signals from a satellite

can be transmitted to any place on
Earth which means that high quality
communications can be made
available to remote areas of the world without requiring the massive investment in ground-based
equipment.
What is a Bit Stream?
Millions of bits, travel over thousands of computer networks every day. The system
works much like the modern post office, which has to constantly send and receive
letters from all over the world. Like those letters, computer bits arrive in a continuous,
ordered stream known as the bit stream.

The bits identify where they are coming from (often a computer) and where they are
traveling to (often another computer).

All the information sent to and from a computer turns into a series of 1's and 0's that
represent data. When the computer sends a message, the bits travel in a specific order
through a wire to their destination. Typically, the bit stream starts with information about
where it's going and how to process the information once it arrives.

An email, for example, contains information on the sender, the recipient, and the
message itself. When the user sends it, it's broken down into bits of data which travel
over the bit stream to the recipient's computer.

Video on demand (VOD) is a system that may allow users to select and
watch/listen to video or audio content when they choose to, rather than having to watch
at a specific broadcast time (Live streaming). Some TV VOD systems such as Netflix or
Hulu allow users to watch their favorite shows whenever they please.

Live streaming or real time, as the name suggests, is streaming a video that is
happening at that exact moment. Examples may be a football match, a concert, or a
lecture happening at your university.

A crucial point with media streaming is whether the technology has sufficient power to
provide a satisfactory user experience. When the media is created it is the intention that
the media is to be delivered to the user at precisely the same speed as used for the
creation; a song that lasted four minutes when sung for the recording will sound very
peculiar if, when it is received by a user, it lasts six minutes. More specifically, the
process of delivering the content will be quantified by the bit rate.
For example, a relatively poor-quality video can be delivered at a bit rate of 300 kbps
but a reasonably good-quality audio file only requires delivery at 128 kbps. Figure 2.05
shows a simple schematic diagram of the components involved in the streaming.

Figure 2.05 Schematic diagram of bit streaming Media server.

The bit rate for delivery to the user from the buffer must match the defined rate for the
specific media in use but the planned transmission rate to the buffer should be higher to
allow for unexpected delays. These rates are controlled by the media player by
continuous monitoring of the extent of filling of the buffer in relation to the defined high-
and low-water marks. It is essential to have a buffer size that is sufficiently large for it
never to get filled.
The rate of transmission to the buffer is limited by the bandwidth of the network
connection.

For a connection via a PSTN, a broadband link is essential. For good-quality movie presentation
the broadband requirement is about 2.5 Mbps. Because this will not be available for all users it
is often the practice that an individual video is made available at different levels of compression.
The most highly compressed version will be the poorest quality but the bit rate may be
sufficiently low for a reasonable presentation with a relatively low bandwidth Internet connection.

Buffering
A buffer is a temporary storage space where data can be held and processed. The
buffer holds the data that is required to listen to or watch the media. As data for a file is
downloaded it is held in the buffer temporarily. As soon as enough data is in the buffer
the file will start playing.

When you see the warning sign 'buffering' this means that the client is waiting for more
data from the server. The buffer will be smaller if the computer is on a faster network.

Cellular networks
A mobile phone is often called a 'cell phone' because of the fundamental infrastructure provided
for mobile phone users. This is illustrated in Figure 17.08.
Each cell has at its Centre a base station. The system works because each cell has a defined
frequency for transmission which is different from the frequencies used in adjacent cells.
Figure 17.08 A collection of mobile phone cells
The technology available in a mobile phone has progressed dramatically through what are
described as generations:

1G was designed for voice communication using analogue technology.

2G went digital.
3G introduced multimedia and
serious Internet connection
capability.
4G introduced smartphones with
high -bandwidth broadband
connectivity.