Dynamics of fluids

Pantheer Majak
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Dynamics of fluids
• Fluid dynamics is the science treating the study of fluids in motion. By
the term fluid, we mean a substance that flows i.e. which is not a
solid. Fluids may be divided into two categories
• (i) liquids which are incompressible i.e. their volumes do not change
when the pressure changes
• (ii) gases which are compressible i.e. they undergo change in volume
whenever the pressure changes. The term hydrodynamics is often
applied to the science of moving incompressible fluids. However,
there is no sharp distinctions between the three states of matter i.e.
solid, liquid and gases.
Fluid dynamics
the derivation of Euler's Equation

We consider an elementary parallelopiped of fluid element as a

control mass system in a frame of rectangular Cartesian
coordinate axes as shown. The external forces acting on a fluid
element are the body forces and the surface forces

Let Xx, Xy, Xz be the components of body forces acting per

unit mass of the fluid element along the coordinate axes x, y and
z respectively. The body forces arise due to external force fields
like gravity, electromagnetic field, etc., and therefore, the
detailed description of Xx, Xy and Xz are provided by the laws
of physics describing the force fields. The surface forces for an
inviscid fluid will be the pressure forces acting on different
surfaces as shown in Fig. Therefore, the net forces acting on
the fluid element along x, y and z directions can be written as
Derivation:
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑝𝑋𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑝𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑥dx)dydz=(p𝑋𝑥 ─ 𝜕𝑥)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑓𝑦 = 𝑝𝑋𝑦 , 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑝𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑥dy)dxdz=(p𝑋𝑦 ─ 𝜕𝑥)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑝𝑍𝑧 , 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑝𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑥dz)dxdz=(p𝑋𝑧 ─ 𝜕𝑥)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

Since each component of the force can be expressed as the rate

of change of momentum in the respective directions, we have

𝐷 𝜕𝑝
𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑢 = (𝜌𝑋𝑥 -𝜕𝑥)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝐷𝑥

𝐷 𝜕𝑝
𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑉 = (𝜌𝑋𝑦 -𝜕𝑦)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝐷𝑥

𝐷 𝜕𝑝
𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑤 = (𝜌𝑋𝑧 - 𝜕𝑧 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝐷𝑥
For example, the leftward force σxx dy dz on the left face is
balanced by the rightward force σxx dy dz on the right face,
leaving only the net rightward force (∂σxx/∂) dx dy dz) dx dy
dz on the right face. The same thing happens on the other four
faces, so that the net surface force in the x direction is given by
• the mass of a control mass system does not change with time,
𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 is constant with time and can be taken common. Therefore
we can write as
Bernoulli's Equation
Bernoulli's Principle
PRESSURE plus ENERGY is CONSTANT!
1. P + E = P + E
2. P + U + K = P + U + K
3. P + ρgh + ½ρν² = P + ρgh + ½ρν²
This hold at ANY point!
P1 + ρgh1 + ½ρν1² = P2 + ρgh2 + ½ρν2²
The Bernoulli Equation

Euler’s equation can be integrated along a streamline to yield

the frictionless Bernoulli equation

This is the Bernoulli equation for steady frictionless

incompressible flow along a streamline
Inviscid Flow: Euler’s Equation
• Euler’s equation (the equation of motion of an inviscid fluid) along a
stream line for a steady flow with gravity as the only body force can
be written as
• The complete analysis of inviscid flow fields, using continuity and the
Bernoulli relation, is given in Chap. 8.
 Bernoulli's Equation with Head Loss

The derivation of mechanical energy equation for a real fluid

depends much on the information about the frictional work done
by a moving fluid element and is excluded from the scope of the
book. However, in many practical situations, problems related
to real fluids can be analysed with the help of a modified form
of Bernoulli’s equation as

The pipe head loss equals the change in the sum of pressure and
gravity head—that is, the change in height of the hydraulic
grade line (HGL).
Bernoulli's Equation In Irrotational Flow

This equation was obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation

(the equation of motion) with respect to a displacement 'ds'
along a streamline. Thus, the value of C in the above equation is
constant only along a streamline and should essentially vary
from streamline to streamline.
The equation can be used to define relation between flow
variables at point B on the streamline and at point A, along the
same streamline. So, in order to apply this equation, one should
have knowledge of velocity field beforehand. This is one of the
limitations of application of Bernoulli's equation
Irrotationality of flow field
• Under some special condition, the constant C becomes invariant from
streamline to streamline and
• the Bernoulli’s equation is applicable with same value of C to the
entire flow field.
• The typical condition is the irrotationality of flow field
Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations
• Newtonian fluids,the viscous stresses are proportional to the
element strain rates and the coefficient of viscosity. For
incompressible flow, the generalization of Eq. (1.23) to three-
dimensional viscous flow is5

μ is the viscosity coefficient

Substitution into Eq. (4.35) gives the differential momentum

equation for a newtonian fluid with constant density and
viscosity:
Navier-Stokes Equations
 Equation of Linear Momentum
• the reader might pursue, would be a force balance on an elemental
moving particle.

Again the element is so small that the volume integral simply reduces to a derivative term:

The momentum fluxes occur on all six faces, three inlets and
three outlets. Note that this is a vector relation.
A simplification occurs if we split
up the term in brackets as follows:
 Notation for stresses
• The term in brackets on the right-hand side is seen to be the equation
of continuity
the total acceleration of a particle that instantaneously occupies
the control volume:

points out that the net force on the control volume must be
of differential size and proportional to the element volume
Body forces are due to external fields (gravity, magnetism,
electric potential) that act on the entire mass within the element.
The only body force we shall consider in this book is gravity.
The gravity force on the differential mass ρ dx dy dz within the
control volume is
Notation for stresses
• The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of the control
surface. These stresses are the sum of hydrostatic pressure plus
viscous stresses τij that arise from motion with velocity gradients
The Differential Equation of Angular
Momentum
• The conservation of momentum is defined by Newton’s second law of
motion.
• Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
impressed action and takes place in the direction of the impressed
action.
• If a force acts on the body ,linear momentum is implied.
• If a torque (moment) acts on the body,angular momentum is implied.
• The appropriate form of the integral angular momentum equation for
a fixed control volume is

We confine ourselves to an axis through O that is parallel to the

z axis and passes through the centroid of the elemental control
volume
θ be the angle of rotation about O of the fluid within the control
volume.

The only stresses that have moments about O are the shear
stresses τxy and τyx. We can evaluate the moments about O and
the angular momentum terms about O. A lot of algebra is
involved, and we give here only the result:
 Assuming that the angular acceleration d2θ/dt2 is not infinite, we
can neglect all higher-order differential terms, which leaves a
finite and interesting result:

Had we summed moments about axes parallel to y or x, we

would have obtained exactly analogous results:
The Differential Equation of Energy
where Ẇs = 0 because there can be no infinitesimal shaft
protruding into the control volume. By analogy with Eq. (4.20),
the right-hand side becomes, for this tiny element

where ζ = e + p/ρ. When we use the continuity equation by

analogy with Eq. (4.21), this becomes
example
• A centrifugal impeller of 40-cm diameter is used to pump hydrogen at
15°C and 1-atm pressure. Estimate the maximum allowable impeller
rotational speed to avoid compressibility effects at the blade tips.