Nutrients :
• Nutrients are elements essential to the growth and
reproduction of plants and animals and aquatic
species Common nutrients, those required in most
abundance by aquatic species are C, N, and P.
• Carbon is readily available from many sources. CO2
from atmosphere, alkalinity and decay products of
organic matter all supply carbon to the aquatic
system.
• In most cases N and P are the nutrients that are
limiting factors in aquatic plant growth.
264
NITROGEN :
•Nitrogen is essential for all living things as it is a
component of protein
•Nitrogen exists in the environment in many
forms and changes forms as it moves through
the nitrogen cycle
•However, excessive concentrations of nitrate-
nitrogen or nitrite-nitrogen in drinking water
can be hazardous to health, especially for
infants and pregnant women
265
Chemical Forms – N
•NO32- (Nitrate)
•NO2- (Nitrite)
•NH4+ (Ammonium)
•CO(NH2) 2 (Organic, Urea)
•N2 (Dissolved gas)
•N2O (Nitrous Oxide)
266
• Nitrogen is the nutrient applied in the largest quantities
for lawn and garden care and crop production
(Fertilizer).
• In addition to fertilizer, nitrogen occurs naturally in the
soil in organic forms from decaying plant and animal
residues.
• In the soil, bacteria convert various forms of nitrogen to
nitrate, a nitrogen/oxygen ion (NO3-).
• Nitrate is highly leachable and readily moves with water
through the soil profile.
• If there is excessive rainfall or over-irrigation, nitrate will
be leached below the plant's root zone and may
eventually reach groundwater. 267
• Nitrate in water is undetectable without testing
because it is colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• A water test for nitrate is highly recommended for
households with infants, pregnant women, nursing
mothers, or elderly people.
• These groups are the most susceptible to nitrate or
nitrite contamination.
268
The primary health hazard from drinking water with nitrate-
nitrogen occurs when nitrate is transformed to nitrite in the
digestive system.
The nitrite oxidizes the iron in the hemoglobin of the red blood
cells to form methemoglobin, which lacks the oxygen-carrying
ability of hemoglobin.
This creates the condition known as methemoglobinemia
(sometimes referred to as "blue baby syndrome"), in which
blood lacks the ability to carry sufficient oxygen to the individual
body cells, causing the veins and skin to appear blue.
269
PHOSPHORUS:
•Phosphorus is an element like hydrogen
or oxygen
•Phosphorus combines with other things
to make phosphates
•It is essential for living things
•Too much is bad
270
SOURCES OF PHOSPHATES IN WATER:
• Fertilizer
• Storm sewer runoff
• Soil erosion
• Forest fires
• Volcanic eruptions
271
Natural eutrophication is the process by which lakes gradually age and become more
productive. It normally takes thousands of years to progress and include the following stages:
oligotrophy, mesotrophy, and eutrophy (Table 3.4) [9].
Essential Plant Nutrients:
Sources and Functions
Table 3.3. Essential Plant Nutrients: Sources and Functions [3].
Nutrient Source Function
Macronutrients
Carbon (CO2) Atmosphere, decay Biomass constituent
Hydrogen Water Biomass constituent
Oxygen Water Biomass constituent
Decay, atmosphere (from nitrogen-
Nitrogen (NO3-) Protein constituent
fixing organisms), pollutants
Phosphorous (phosphate) Decay, minerals, pollutants DNA/RNA constituent
Potassium Minerals, pollutants Metabolic function
Sulphur (sulphate) Minerals Proteins, enzymes
Magnesium Minerals Metabolic function
Calcium Minerals Metabolic function
Micronutrients
B, Cl, Co, Cu, Fe, Mo, Mn, Na, Si, Metabolic function and/or
Minerals, pollutants
V, Zn constituent of enzymes
Oligotrophy is the beginning stage of a lake. Young lake (and man made reservoirs) usually is
rich in dissolved oxygen, but have low levels of nutrients and correspondingly low levels
272
of
biological activity [52]. This means that the lake also has a lack of fertility that limits animal
life in the lake. In its mid-life, the lake becomes mesotrophic. The nutrients flowing into the
lake accumulate in the bottom sediments along with nutrients that settle from decay of the
lake's own organisms. Some of this nourishment recycles into the upper waters where it is
photosynthesized into greater production of phytoplankton [53].
The final stage of lake’s ageing is eutrophy. This stage occurs when the lake becomes old.
Old lakes usually have high levels of nutrients and correspondingly high levels of biological
activity [52]. The lake's water becomes turbid with decaying organic matter from plants and
animals and the supply of dissolved oxygen in the water becomes depleted by the rapidly
2
See examples of eutrophication on
http://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/Eutrophication/examplespage.html
96
273
EFFECTS OF N and P:
Lowers dissolved oxygen (DO).
How does Nitrogen reduce the amount of DO?
• N & P feeds algae (green stuff)
• Algae grows & grows
• Algae blocks sunlight
• Underwater plants die
• Algae die and decompose
• The decomposition takes up oxygen
• No DO for organisms, so they die
274
Since phosphorus and nitrogen are natural fertilizers their
addition results in the mass production of algae and other plant
life in the lakes and ponds. When plants and algae die their
remains gradually sink and are consumed by aerobic bacteria.
This results in a reduction of the level of dissolved oxygen.
Eventually, often near the bottom of a lake, virtually no oxygen
remains and the water is said to be anoxic. The worst affected
areas can become completely anoxic. Under these conditions
anaerobic bacteria flourish. Anaerobic bacteria often produce
foul-smelling compounds such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
thioalcolohs (RSH) and ammonia (NH3), resulting in the water
becoming extremely unpleasant. Moreover, release of toxic
hydrogen sulphide can poison organisms and make the
reservoir lifeless. When there is no oxygen left for the
organisms they soon die and sink to the bottom of the lake.
This only acts as more fertilizer for the lake and the lake is
eventually taken over by the plant life .
275
Nitrogen and Phosphorous
• Nutrients are elements essential to the growth and reproduction
of plants and animals and aquatic species. In most cases N
and P are the nutrients that are limiting factors in aquatic plant
growth. Excess N/P decreases in water transparency, taste,
odor, and water treatment problems, dissolved oxygen
depletion, increased incidences of fish kills, etc.
276
Adverse effects of eutrophication on lakes,
reservoirs, rivers and coastal marine waters
• Increased biomass of phytoplankton
• Toxic or inedible phytoplankton species
• Dissolved oxygen depletion
• Loss of desirable fish species
• Reductions in harvestable fish (Commercially
important) and shellfish
• Decreases in perceived aesthetic value of the
water body
• The water can be injurious to health
• The amenity value of the water may decline
• Increased vegetation may impede water flow and
navigation
• Treatment of drinking water may be difficult, and
supply can have an unacceptable taste or odor
277
278
Fluoride :
It is well known that fluoride in drinking water helps to prevent
dental cavities when its concentration is within a certain limit.
However, excessive intake of fluoride causes fluorosis, such
as dental fluorosis and bone fluorosis.
279
Fluoride :
The Sri Lankan standard for drinking water is less than
1.0 mg/l, while WHO guidelines less than 1.5 mg/l.
Chemical Sri Lankan WHO
Diagnostics
constituent standard guideline
Dental fluorosis
Fluoride Bone fluorosis <1.0 mg/l <1.5 mg/l
CKDu?
280
Fluoride Concentration
Excess amount of fluoride
concentration appears in;
Anuradhapura
• Upper part of the
Hambantota
(Eg: Thanamalwila) Kurunegala
• Monaragala
• Kurunegala Monaragala
Thanamalwila
• North-central province
Tissamaharama
Fluoride: Sri Lankan standard (< 1.0 mg/L)
Ø20 % of the wells in Hambantota are contaminated due
to high Fluoride concentration
Ø70% of the wells in lower Uva area are exceeded Sri
Lankan standards concentration of Fluoride
Dental Florosis CKDu????
ØFluoride is one of hypothesis as the cause of
CKDu????
BOD, COD and TOC
283
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
284
Definition
The Biochemical (or Biological) oxygen
demand (BOD) is a measure of the
amount of dissolved oxygen required to
break down the organic material in a
given volume of water through
biochemical processes to
COMPLETELY aerobic biological
activity. ( By Micro-organism)
285
What biochemical processes?
Bacteria
In the normal course of an aquatic ecosystem,
there is significant bacterial activity that
serves to decompose organic matter under
normally aerobic conditions.
[Aerobic – requiring oxygen]
286
How is BOD different from Dissolved Oxygen?
“Dissolved oxygen” is there. It is a measure of how
much oxygen is dissolved in a water sample. It is a
measure of oxygen content.
BOD is the amount of oxygen that would be
consumed to completely decompose the organic
matter in a water sample. It is not an indication of
oxygen content. It is an indication of the amount of
organic material present.
287
Biochemical oxygen demand
(B.O.D)
The greater the organic matter
(nutrient load), the greater
the BOD5 number
● sewage
● fertilizer
● runoff
● detergents
● others?
Municipal sewage (treated):
Retrieved on 04-11-2013 from: http://www.enright.ie/wp-
BOD ~20 mg/L
content/uploads/2008/10/bod-levels.jpg
Untreated sewage
● Europe: BOD ~600 mg/L
● U.S.: BOD ~200 mg/L
(greater per capita water
use)
288
The Reaction :
Complete oxidation (combustion) of organic materials
yields identical products no matter what the organic
starting material.
CnHaObNc + O2 → CO2 + H2O + NH3
289
290
BOD test is performed;
291
BOD test;
292
BOD: A Bioassay
Briefly, the BOD test employs a bacterial seed to
catalyze the oxidation of 300 mL of full-strength or
diluted wastewater. The strength of the un-diluted
wastewater is then determined from the dilution factor
and the difference between the initial D.O. and the final
D.O.
!"#$ ! #"B " #" & BOD
Bottle
293
294
BOD with Dilution
When BOD>8mg/L
) * ) (D " ) + ) (D #
&D( !
! ,$ $
# &
" ,B %
Where
BODt = biochemical oxygen demand at t days, [mg/L]
DOi = initial dissolved oxygen in the sample bottle, [mg/L]
DOf = final dissolved oxygen in the sample bottle, [mg/L]
Vb = sample bottle volume, usually 300 or 250 mL, [mL]
Vs = sample volume, [mL]
295
296
297
BOD Modeling
"L" is modelled as a simple 1st order decay: !"
= ! $! "
!#
Which leads to:
! = !# " ! $!%
And combining with: !"#& ! $& = BD " B&
We get: !"#D ! $D = B( !# " & " )#D "
298
299
BOD - loss of biodegradable
organic matter (oxygen demand)
Lo
L or BOD remaining
Lt Lo-Lt = BODt
Time
BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Bottle Bottle Bottle Bottle Bottle
300
301
302
303
304
305
Nitrification in BOD
306
307
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
308
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is a widely known
parameter used to measure water quality. It is a measure
of water pollution resulting from organic matter. This
parameter is defined as the amount of oxygen required, or
equivalent, for the oxidation of all chemically oxidyzable
matter contained in a water sample.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) does not differentiate
between biologically available and inert organic matter,
and it is a measure of the total quantity of oxygen
required to oxidize all organic material into carbon
dioxide and water. COD measurements can be made in a
few hours while BOD measurements take five days.
309
• The BOD test provides a measure of the biodegradable
organic material in water, i.e., of the substance that
microbe can readily use for food. There might also be non-
biodegradable or slowly biodegradable substance that will
not detected by the convectional BOD test.
• COD values are always higher than BOD values for the
same sample, but there is generally no consistent
correlation between the two tests for different wastewater.
In other word, it is not feasible to simply measure the COD
and then predict the BOD. Because most wastewater
treatment plant are biological in their mode of operation,
the BOD is more representative of the treatment process
and remains a more commonly used parameter than the
COD.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a quick, inexpensive means to
determine organics in water. COD samples are prepared with a closed-
reflux digestion followed by analysis.
311
COD: A chemical test
The chemical oxygen demand
(COD) of a waste is measured
in terms of the amount of
potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) reduced by the
sample during 2 hr of reflux in a
medium of boiling, 50% H2SO4
and in the presence of a
Ag2SO4 catalyst.
312
Comparing all “oxygens”
Dissolved oxygen (DO) – amount of actual oxygen
dissolved in a water sample.
Higher number = purer water
BOD5 – Actual amount of dissolved oxygen metabolised
over 5 days. Higher number = dirtier
BOD – Extrapolated amount of theoretical oxygen that
would be needed to completely metabolise organic
waste.
Higher number = dirtier
COD – Actual amount of oxygen required to completely
oxidize organic waste CHEMICALLY.
Higher number = dirtier.
313
Total Organic Carbon
The TOC (Total Organic Carbon) is one of the most
important composite parameters in the assessment
of the organic pollution of water. Since it includes all
carbon compounds as one mass, it is exactly
defined and an absolute quantity. Therefore, it may
be determined directly. In relation to the TOC also
parameters like TC, TIC, DOC, (POC, VOC) are
mentioned.
314
A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total carbon present
and the so-called "inorganic carbon" (IC), the latter representing
the content of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid salts.
Subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total carbon yields TOC.
Another common variant of TOC analysis involves removing the
IC portion first and then measuring the leftover carbon. This
method involves purging an acidified sample with carbon-free air
or nitrogen prior to measurement, and so is more accurately
called non-purgeable organic carbon (NPOC) 315
Total Carbon (TC) – all the carbon in the sample, including both
inorganic and organic carbon
Total Inorganic Carbon (TIC) – often referred to as inorganic carbon (IC),
carbonate, bicarbonate, and dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2).
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) – material derived from decaying vegetation,
bacterial growth, and metabolic activities of living organisms or chemicals.
Non-Purgeable Organic Carbon (NPOC) – commonly referred to as
TOC; organic carbon remaining in an acidified sample after purging the sample
with gas.
Purgeable (volatile) Organic Carbon (VOC) – organic carbon that has
been removed from a neutral, or acidified sample by purging with an inert gas.
These are the same compounds referred to as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
and usually determined by Purge and Trap Gas Chromatography.
Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) – organic carbon remaining in a sample after
filtering the sample, typically using a 0.45 micrometer filter.
Suspended Organic Carbon – also called particulate organic carbon
(POC); the carbon in particulate form that is too large to pass through a filter 316
Toxic Chemical :
Toxic organic chemical, fertilizer, pesticide may be carry
into the water in the surface runoff from agricultural
areas. Perhaps the most dangerous type is the family of
chemical called Chlorinated hydrocarbons. Common
examples are known by there common chemical names
as chlordane, Dieldrin, Heptachlor, POPs and the famous
DDT., which has been banned all over the world. They are
very effective poison against insect that demand
agriculture crops.
Unfortunately, they can kill fish, birds, and animals,
including humans. And they are not very biodegradable,
taking more than 30 years in some cases to dissipate
from the environment.
317
Oil and Grease
• Oil & Grease is washed into surface water in
runoff from road and parking lot, and groundwater
can be polluted from leaking underground tanks,
accidental oil spills from large transport tankers at
a sea occasional occur, causing significant
environmental damage. Blow out accident at
offshore oil wells can release many thousand of
tonnes of oil in a short period of time. Oil spills at
sea may eventually move towards shore,
affecting aquatic life and damaging recreational
areas.
Biological characteristics :
As far as public health is concerned the most
important aspect of drinking water quality is the
bacteriological quality, i.e. the presence of
bacteria and viruses.
319
Biological parameters of water quality
v The presence or absence of living organisms
in water can be one of the most useful
indicators of its quality.
v In the streams, river, and lakes, the diversity of
fish and insect species provide a measure of
the biological balance or health of the aquatic
environment.
v A wide variety of different species of
organisms usually indicates that the stream or
lake is polluted.
v The disappearance of certain species and
overabundance of other groups of organisms
is generally one of the effects of pollution.
320
Waterborne pathogens :
• Bacteria
• Virus
• Protozoa
• Helmiths
• Spirochete
• Rickettsia
• Algae
321
Bacteria
Enteritis, diarrhea, and dysentery
• Campylobacter
• Cholera
• E. coli 0157:H
• Salmonella
• Shigella
Enteric fever
• Typhoid
• Paratyphoid
Paralysis
• Botulism
Eye, ear, and skin infections
• Miscellaneous bacteria
Urinary tract infections
• E. coli
322
• Others
Viruses:
Enteritis, diarrhea, and dysentery
• Rotavirus
• Norwalk
Flu like (liver damage)
• Hepatitis A
• Hepatitis E
Paralysis
• Polio
323
Protozoa
• Giardia
• Cryptosporidia
• Amoeba
324
Helmith
• Round worm
• Tape worm
• Hook worm
• Whip worm
325
Others…..
Algae
• Mycrocystis
• Dinoflaggelates
Fungi
Water-related diseases
• Malaria
• Schistosomiasis
• Yellow fever
• Dengue fever
326
Biological characteristics (Microorganism):
•Biological growth may affect water quality
-Taste, Odor and Colors
•Growth of Pathogens may cause disease
Pathogens are microorganisms
(bacteria and viruses) that
cause disease
327
Problems…..
•Numerous waterborne pathogens
•Individual pathogen numbers may be too
low to detect in a reasonably sized water
sample
•Isolation and detection of some pathogens
can take several days, weeks, or months
•Absence of one particular pathogen does
not rule out the presence of another
328
Indicator Organisms:
• As it is difficult to measure all type of organisms,
Water Engineers use Indicator Organisms as a
parameter.
• Indicator Organism normally present in human
and warm-blooded animal faeces used as
indicators of faecal pollution.
• Fecal coliform used as indicator organism
• Fecal coliform present in digestive system of warm
blooded animals
329
Requirements of Indicator Organisms
• need an indicator of potential pathogen contamination
of water which is easy, reliable, inexpensive, quick, etc.
• present when pathogens present in water
• absent in uncontaminated water
• present in higher numbers than pathogens in
contaminated water
• better survival in water than pathogens
• easy to analyze
330
Coliform Group
ØTotal coliform
ØFecal coliform
total coliform
• All total coliform criteria
• Grows at 44.5 C
fecal coliform
ØEscherichia coli
E. coli
• Individual species
• Enzyme specific
331
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
• subset of the total coliform group
• separated from non-fecal coliforms by growth at
44.5 °C
• sources: fecal material
• capable of limited survival and growth in the
environment
• primary example is Escherichia coli (E. coli)
332
Approved Drinking Water Methods:
• Membrane Filter Method - total coliforms,
fecal coliforms, E. coli
• Multiple Tube Fermentation Method- total
coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli
333
Membrane Filter Methods:
• Filter water through a 0.45 μm membrane filter
• Place membrane on selective media
• Incubate
• 35 C total coliform
• 44.5 C fecal coliform
• Count colonies
334
Multiple Tube Fermentation Methods:
• Serial dilution to extinction
• Inoculate multiple tubes (5 or 10) of media with
across the increasing series of dilutions
• Incubate
• 35 C or
• 44.5 C
• Count positive growth tubes
• Use Most-Probable-Number (MPN) table to
estimate density
335
Membrane Filter Method
(Endo agar with coliform growth)
Multiple Tube Fermentation
Methods
336
Water quality expression
EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION
The properties of solutions, suspensions and colloids
depend to large extent on their concentrations. Since
concentrations need to be expressed quantitatively,
instead of qualitatively terms like dilute or strong,
concentration are usually expressed in terms of
mass per unit volume, part per million or billion, or
percent.
338
339
340
Brief review of important concepts
for quantitative analysis
ØSome important units of quantification
ØUnits for expressing concentrations in solids and liquids
ØConcentration-dilution formula
341
Some common prefixes for
exponential notation
1012 tera (T)
109 giga (G)
Remember the correct 106 mega (M)
abbreviations! 103 kilo (k)
10-1 deci (d)
10-2 centi (c)
10-3 milli (m)
10-6 micro (μ)
10-9 nano (n)
10-12 pico (p)
10-15 femto (f)
10-18 atto (a)
342
Commonly used equalities
103 mg = 1 g milli = thousandth
1 mg = 10-3 g
106 μg = 1 g micro = millionth
1 μg = 10-6 g
109 ng = 1 g nano = billionth
1 ng = 10-9 g
1012 pg = 1 g pico = trillionth
1 pg = 10-12 g
343
Concentration scales
ØMolarity (M) = ,"#*! "( !"#$%*
)&%*+ "( !"#$%&"'
ØMolality (m) = ,"#%! "+ !"#*'%
() !"#$%&'
• Molarity is a temperature-dependent scale because
volume (and density) change with temperature.
• Molality is a temperature-independent scale because
the mass of a kilogram does not vary with temperature.
344
Concentration scales (cont.)
Weight / weight (w/w) basis
% (w/w) = & $#"" "(&)*' % ! $ # ! à percent
$$ !!"#
% $#"" "#$%&' % ! $ "
ppt (w/w) = & $#"" "(&)*' % ! $ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per thousand
% $#"" "#$%&' % ! $ "
ppm (w/w) = & $#"" "(&)*' % ! $ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per million
% $#"" "#$%&' % ! $ "
ppb (w/w) = & $#"" "(&)*' % ! $ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per billion
% $#"" "#$%&' % ! $ "
ppt (w/w) = & $#"" "(&)*' % ! $ # !"
$$ !!!# à ppt = parts per trillion
% $#"" "#$%&' % ! $ "
This scale is useful for solids or solutions. 345
Concentration scales (cont.)
Weight / volume (w/v) basis
% (w/v) = & !$## #)&+,' % * $ # !
$$ !!"# à percent
% ()&& #$!%&' % !" $ "
ppt (w/v) = & !$## #)&+,' % * $ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per thousand
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
ppm (w/v) = & !$## #)&+,' % * $ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per million
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
ppb (w/v) = & !$## #)&+,' % * $ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per billion
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
ppt (w/v) = & !$## #)&+,' % * $ # !"
$$ !!!# à ppt = parts per trillion
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
346
Concentration scales (cont.)
Volume / volume (v/v) basis
& ()&& #)&*+' %!"$ # !
% (v/v) = $$ !!"# à percent
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
ppt (v/v) = & ()&& #)&*+' %!"$ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per thousand
% ()&& #$!%&' % !" $ "
ppm (v/v) = & ()&& #)&*+' %!"$ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per million
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
ppb (v/v) = & ()&& #)&*+' %!"$ # !
$$ !!"# à ppt = parts per billion
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
ppt (v/v) = & ()&& #)&*+' %!"$ # !"
$$ !!!# à ppt = parts per trillion
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
347
PART PER MILLION:
• One liter of water has a mass of 1kg. But 1kg is
equivalent to 1000g or 1 million mg. therefore, if 1
mg of a substance is dissolved in 1 L of water, we
can say that there is 1 mg of solute per million mg
of water. In other words, there is one part per
million (1 ppm)
• 1mg/L=1ppm.
• MICROg/L is preferred over its equivalent of ppb.
PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION:
• Concentrations in excess of 10000mg/L are generally
expressed in terms of percent, for conveniences.
• For practical purposes, the conversion of 1 percent = 10000
mg/L be used even though the density of the solutions are
slightly more than that of pure water (10000mg/L =
10000mg/1000000mg = 1 mg/100 mg = 1 percent).
• A concentration expressed in terms of percent may be also
computed using the following expression.
• Percent = (Mass of Solute (mg)/ Mass of Solvent (mg)) X 100
Concentration examples
& '(&% ) *H$ # *
$$ !!)% = '(&% $ # ! " !!
ØConcentrated HCl % )%%&% ) "#$%C'#( "
& +&&*&& '( H* +H* ,)* # ,
ØAlcoholic beverage $$ !!'& = %& $ #! " !!
% ()& '( "#!#$%C# "
ØColor indicator for & &'&(& 0 .L-)$%.L'L,%-() # )
$$ !!%& = &'%& $ # " " !!
titrations % (& '& *+ #$%&'($) "
350
Concentration example: %(w:v)
What is the concentration, on a %(w:v) basis, of Vanadium in a
solution that contains 281.5 mg/L of vanadium?
& !$## #)&+,' % * $ # !
( % - ' ($ = $$ !!"#
% ()&& #$!%&' %!"$ "
' +(%*) %( ' $' % ( ' $ ' %& $ +
$ #" " !! = % "%% "" %% ""%&
& & #& %&&& %( ' # & %&&& %& #
= &*&+(%) $ # " " ! ! #$ +*(%) ' %&!+ $ # " " ! !
351
Concentration scales (cont.)
• Parts per million, billion, trillion are very often used to
denote concentrations of aqueous solutions:
& ! # $%&'(+ #& !"# "# #& ! # $%&'()%* #& !""" "! $%&'()%* # "#
! ,," = $ $ !$ !$ !$ ! = !
$ !" # $%&'()%* !$% ! # !"$% ! "! $%&'()%* !"$% ! ! $%&'()%* !" !
% "
& ! " #$%&'+ #& !" # µ" #& ! " #$%&'($) #& !""" *! #$%&'($) # µ"
! ,,- = $ $ !$ !$ !$ ! = !
$ !" " #$%&'($) !$% ! " !"$% !*! #$%&'($) !"$% ! ! #$%&'($) !" !
% "
& ! # $%&'(+ #& !"# "# #& ! # $%&'()%" #& !""" *! $%&'()%" # "#
! ,,( = $ # !$ !$ !$ ! = !
$ !" # $%&'()%" !$% ! # !"$% ! *! $%&'()%" !"$% ! ! $%&'()%" !" !
% "
Note: ppt = parts per trillion
352
Concentration scales (cont.)
It is important to memorize:
Ø1 part per million (ppm) = 1 mg / L
Ø1 part per billion (ppb) = 1 μg / L
Ø1 part per trillion (ppt) = 1 ng / L
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• EXAMPLE: A 500-mL aqueous solution has 125mg of salt dissolved
in it. Express the concentration of this solution in terms of (a) mg/L,
(b)ppm, (c) Percent
• Solution
• (125mg/500mL)X1000mL/L = 250mg/L
• 250mg/L = 250 ppm
• (Applying this equation Percent = (Mass of Solute (mg)/ Mass of
Solvent (mg))X 100
• Percent = 0.125g/500g X 100 = 0.025 percent Or divide 250mg/L
by 10,000 to get 0.025 percent
If 0.3g of salt is dissolved in 1500mL of water, then
what is the concentration?
300mg/1.5L=200mg/L,
where 0.3g = 300mg and 1500mL = 1.5L
(1g=1000mg/L; 1L=1000mL).
Concentration examples
Conversion of molarity to ppm
Solution of 0.02500 M K2SO4
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K = 39.1
S = 32
O = 16 356
What is concentration (in ppm) of K+ in this
solution?
Solution of 0.02500 M K2SO4
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Concentration-dilution formula
A very versatile formula that you absolutely must know how to use
• C1 V 1 = C2 V 2
where C = conc.; V = volume
• M1 V1 = M2 V2
where M = molarity
• Cconc Vconc = Cdil Vdil
where “conc” refers to the more concentrated solution and
“dil” refers to the more dilute solution. Note that you can
use any units you want for conc. and vol. as long as they
are the same on both sides of the equation.
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Concentration-dilution formula example
Problem: You have available 12.0 M HCl (conc. HCl) and wish to
prepare 0.500 L of 0.750 M HCl for use in an experiment. How
do you prepare such a solution?
Cconc Vconc = Cdil Vdil
Write down what you know and what you don’t know:
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Concentration-dilution formula example
Problem: You have available 12.0 M HCl (conc. HCl) and wish to
prepare 0.500 L of 0.750 M HCl for use in an experiment. How
do you prepare such a solution?
Cconc Vconc = Cdil Vdil
Cconc = 12.0 mol L-1 Cdil = 0.750 mol L-1
Vconc = ? Vdil = 0.500 L
Vconc = (Cdil)(Vdil) / Cconc
Vconc = (0.750 mol L-1) (0.500 L) / 12.0 mol L-1
Vconc = 3.12 x 10-2 L = 31.2 mL
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Concentration-dilution formula example
So how do you prepare this solution of 0.750 M HCl?
1. Use a pipet or graduated cylinder to measure exactly
31.2 mL of 12.0 M
2. Transfer the 31.2 mL of 12.0 M HCl to a 500.0 mL
volumetric flask
3. Gradually add deionized water to the volumetric flask
and swirl to mix the solution
4. As the solution gets close to the 500.0 mL graduation on
the flask, use a dropper or squeeze bottle to add water
to the mark
5. Put the stopper on the flask and invert ~20 times to mix
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