Geometrical Optics
Dr. Reham Aly
Lecture: 4 Outline:
REFRACTION AT A
SPHERICAL SURFACE
• Image formation in Spherical
Refracting Surface
• Thin Lenses
Image Formation
• Images can be formed by either reflection or refraction due to these surfaces.
• Reflection ⇒ Previous Lecture (ex: images formed by mirrors)
• Refraction ⇒ Today (ex: images formed by lenses)
• Lenses are commonly used to form images by refraction in optical instruments such as
cameras, telescopes, and microscopes.
Images formed by Refraction
REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE
• A spherical surface: a spherical interface between two optical materials with different indexes of refraction.
• A spherical surface with radius R forms an interface
between two materials with different indexes of
refraction na and nb .
• The surface forms an image P′ of an object point P
• The center of curvature C is on the outgoing side of
the surface, so R is positive
• Ray PV strikes the vertex V and is perpendicular to
the surface. It passes into the second material
without deviation.
• Ray PB, making an angle 𝛼 with the axis, is
incident at an angle 𝜃a with the normal and is
refracted at an angle 𝜃b
• Both the object and image distances are positive
Images formed by Refraction
• Relation between object and image distances
• In the triangles PBC and P′BC, use the theorem
that an exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of
the two opposite interior angles
• (1)
• From the law of refraction:
(2)
• Also
(3)
• For paraxial rays, 𝜃a and 𝜃b are both small angles
(4)
Images formed by Refraction
• Relation between object and image distances
• Combining equ. (4) and equ. (1), we obtain
(5)
• We substitute this into the second of equ. (1), we get
(6)
• Now we use the approximations tan 𝛼 = 𝛼, and so
on, in eqs. (3) and also ignore the small distance 𝛿 ;
(7)
we substitute these into equ. (6) and divide out the
common factor h
object–image relationship, spherical refracting surface
Images formed by Refraction
• Lateral Magnification
• We draw two rays from point Q:
• one through the center of curvature C
• the other incident at the vertex V
• From the triangles PQV and P′Q′V,
• From the law of refraction
• For small angles
• so finally
lateral magnification, spherical refracting surface
Images formed by Refraction
• Those equations apply to both convex and concave refracting surfaces.
• It doesn’t matter whether nb is greater or less than na
• Sign Rule:
• The rule is that R is positive if the center of curvature C is on the
outgoing side of the surface and negative if C is on the other side.
• In the figure R is positive because both C and the outgoing rays are
to the right of the surface.
Images formed by Refraction
• Special case of a spherical refracting surface is a plane surface R = ∞
Plane refracting surface
• For the situation in which the object is in the medium of index n1 and n1 > n2. In
this case, a virtual image is formed between the object and the surface.
• If n1 < n2, the rays on the back side diverge from one another at smaller angles than
those in the figure. As a result, the virtual image is formed to the left of the object
Images formed by Refraction
Example:
A cylindrical glass rod has index of refraction 1.52. It is surrounded by air. One end is ground
to a hemispherical surface with radius R = 2.00 cm. A small object is placed on the axis of the
rod, 8.00 cm to the left of the vertex. Find
(a) the image distance (b) The lateral magnification.
• Here material a is air na = 1.00 and material b is the glass of which
the rod is made nb = 1.52.
• s = 8.00 cm.
• The center of curvature of the spherical surface is on the outgoing
side of the surface, so the radius is positive: R = +2.00 cm.
• Using the equation
Because the image distance s′ is positive, the image is formed 11.3 cm to the
right of the vertex (on the outgoing side)
The value of m tells us that the image is somewhat smaller than
the object and that it is inverted.
Example:
The glass rod of the previous example is immersed in water, which has index of refraction n =
1.33 The object distance is again 8.00 cm. Find
(a) the image distance (b) The lateral magnification.
Example:
If you look straight down into a swimming pool where it is 2.00 m deep, how deep does it
appear to be?
• The surface of the water acts as a plane refracting surface.
• we imagine an arrow PQ painted on the bottom.
• The pool’s refracting surface forms a virtual image P′Q′ of this arrow
• The object distance is the actual depth of the pool, s = 2.00 m.
• Material a is water na = 1.33
• material b is air nb = 1.00.
Use equation
• Arrow P′Q′ is the virtual image of underwater arrow PQ.
• The image distance is negative, this means that the image is virtual and on the incoming side of the refracting surface—that is,
on the same side as the object (underwater).
• The pool’s apparent depth is 1.50 m
Images formed by Refraction
THIN LENSES
A lens is an optical system with two refracting surfaces. The simplest lens has two spherical surfaces close enough together
that we can ignore the distance between them (the thickness of the lens); we call this a thin lens.
Two basic kinds of lenses
Converging lens (convex lens) Diverging lens (Concave lens)
lens brings all incident light-rays parallel to its A lens spreads out all incident light-rays parallel to
optic axis together at a point F, behind the lens, its optic axis so that they appear to diverge from a
called the focal point, or focus, of the lens. virtual focal point F in front of the lens
Thin Lens
Any lens that is thicker at its center than at its edges is a converging lens with
positive f , and any lens that is thicker at its edges than at its center is a
diverging lens with negative f
Convex Lens
Convex Lens
• let s and s′ be the object and image distances.
• let y and y′ be the object and image heights.
• The two angles labeled 𝛼 are equal
• The two right triangles PQO and P′Q′O are similar
• The reason for the negative sign is that the image is below the optic axis and y′ is negative.
• The two angles labeled β are equal
• The two right triangles OAF2 and P′Q′F2 are similar
• Equating the previous 2 equations and divide by s′
Graphical Method
• We can determine the position and size of an image formed by a thin lens by using a graphical method
• We draw a few special rays called principal rays that diverge from a point of the object that is not on the optic
axis.
• The intersection of these rays, after they pass through the lens, determines the position and size of the image.
• The distance between the lens surfaces is negligible
To locate the image of a converging lens, the following three rays are drawn from the top of the object:
Graphical Method
When the image is real, the position of the image point is
determined by the intersection of any two rays 1, 2, and 3
CAUTION Principal rays are not the only rays Keep in mind that any ray from the object that strikes the lens will pass
through the image point (for a real image) or appear to originate from the image point (for a virtual image).
Image formed by convex lens
Ø Object distance > 2F Ø Image real, inverted, Ø Object distance = 2F Ø Image real, inverted,
diminished, between F and 2F Same size, at 2F
Ø Object between Ø Image real, inverted, Ø Object at F Ø Image real, inverted,
2F and F enlarged, beyoned 2F enlarged, at infinity
Image formed by convex lens
Ø Object distance < F Ø Image virtual, Erect, Ø Object @ infinity Ø Image real, inverted,
Enlarged, between same side of Diminished “point size”, at F
object
Image formed by convex lens
Concave Lens
• The beam of parallel rays incident on this lens • Incident rays converging toward the first
diverges after refraction focal point F1 , emerge from the lens parallel
• The focal length of a diverging lens is a negative to its axis.
quantity, and the lens is also called a negative
lens.
Graphical Method
To locate the image of a diverging lens, the following three rays are drawn from the top of the object:
Graphical Method
When the image is virtual, we extend the diverging
outgoing rays backward to their intersection point to
find the image point
CAUTION Principal rays are not the only rays Keep in mind that any ray from the object that strikes the lens will pass
through the image point (for a real image) or appear to originate from the image point (for a virtual image).
Image formed by concave lens
The Lens maker’s Equation
• is a relationship among the focal length f, the index of refraction n of the lens, and the
radii of curvature R1 and R2 of the lens surfaces
• use the principle that an image formed by one reflecting or refracting surface can serve
as the object for a second reflecting or refracting surface.
Example:
A converging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(A) An object is placed 30.0 cm from the lens. Construct a ray diagram, find the image
distance, and describe the image
• Because the lens is converging, the focal length is positive
• Because the object distance is larger than the focal length, we
expect the image to be real.
The positive sign for the image distance tells us that the image is indeed real and on the back side of the lens.
The magnification of the image tells us that the image is reduced in height by one half, and the negative sign for M tells us that
the image is inverted.
Example:
A converging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(B) An object is placed 10.0 cm from the lens. Find the image distance and describe the image.
• Because the object is at the focal point, we expect the image to be infinitely far away.
This result means that rays originating from an object positioned at the focal point of a lens are refracted so that the image
is formed at an infinite distance from the lens
Example:
A converging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(C) An object is placed 5.00 cm from the lens. Construct a ray diagram, find the image
distance, and describe the image.
• Because the object distance is smaller than the focal length,
we expect the image to be virtual
The negative image distance tells us that the image is virtual and formed on the side of the lens from which the light is incident,
the front side
The image is enlarged, and the positive sign for M tells us that the image is upright
Example:
A diverging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(A) An object is placed 30.0 cm from the lens. Construct a ray diagram, find the image
distance, and describe the image.
• Because the lens is diverging, the focal length is negative
• Because the lens is diverging, we expect it to form an
upright, reduced, virtual image for any object position
This result confirms that the image is virtual, smaller than the object, and upright
Example:
A diverging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(B) An object is placed 10.0 cm from the lens. Construct a ray diagram, find the image
distance, and describe the image.
Notice the difference between this situation and that for a converging lens. For a diverging lens, an object at the focal
point does not produce an image infinitely far away.
Example:
A diverging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(C) An object is placed 5.00 cm from the lens. Construct a ray diagram, find the image
distance, and describe the image.
For all three object positions, the image position is negative and the magnification is a positive
number smaller than 1, which confirms that the image is virtual, smaller than the object, and upright
