1.

Laws of Chemical Combination

🔸 Law of Conservation of Mass (Antoine Lavoisier)

"Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction."

 Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products.

 Example: In the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water:

2H2+O2→2H2O2H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O2H2+O2→2H2O

🔸 Law of Constant Proportions (Joseph Proust)

"In a chemical substance, the elements are always present in definite proportions by mass."

 Example: Water (H₂O) always has hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1:8 by mass.

🔹 2. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)

John Dalton gave a scientific theory about atoms, which laid the foundation of modern
chemistry.

Main Postulates:

1. All matter is made of indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.

3. Atoms of different elements have different masses and properties.

4. Atoms combine in small whole numbers to form compounds.

5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

🔹 Limitations: It could not explain the existence of isotopes and subatomic particles.

🔹 3. Atoms

🔸 What is an Atom?

 The smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction.

 Cannot exist independently in all cases.

 Represented by symbols.

🔸 Symbols of Elements (Developed by Berzelius)

 Examples:
 o Hydrogen – H

o Carbon – C

o Oxygen – O

o Sodium – Na (Latin name: Natrium)

o Potassium – K (Latin: Kalium)

o Iron – Fe (Latin: Ferrum)

🔹 4. Atomic Mass

 The mass of an atom is called its atomic mass.

 It is relative – based on the mass of carbon-12 taken as 12 units.

🔸 Atomic Mass Unit (amu or u)

 1 amu = 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

 Example:

o H=1u

o O = 16 u

o C = 12 u

🔹 5. Molecules

🔸 What is a Molecule?

 A group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together.

 Can be atoms of the same element or different elements.

🔸 Types of Molecules:

1. Molecules of Elements: Same type of atoms

o O₂, H₂, N₂

2. Molecules of Compounds: Different atoms

o H₂O, CO₂, NH₃

🔸 Atomicity:

 Number of atoms in a molecule

H₂ 2

O₃ 3

P₄ 4

S₈ 8

🔹 6. Ions

🔸 What are Ions?

 Charged particles formed by gain or loss of electrons.

 Cation – positively charged (e.g. Na⁺, Ca²⁺)

 Anion – negatively charged (e.g. Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻)

🔹 7. Chemical Formulae

🔸 Rules to Write a Chemical Formula:

1. Write symbol of element or ion.

2. Write valency of each.

3. Criss-cross the valencies.

4. Write the formula in simplest ratio.

🔸 Examples:

 Sodium chloride → Na⁺ + Cl⁻ → NaCl

 Magnesium chloride → Mg²⁺ + Cl⁻ → MgCl₂

 Aluminium oxide → Al³⁺ + O²⁻ → Al₂O₃

🔹 8. Molecular Mass

🔸 Definition:

 Sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule.

 Unit: amu or u

🔸 Example:
  H₂O = 2 × 1 + 1 × 16 = 18 u

 CO₂ = 1 × 12 + 2 × 16 = 44 u

🔹 9. Formula Unit Mass

 The sum of atomic masses of all atoms in the formula of an ionic compound.

🔸 Example:

 NaCl = Na (23 u) + Cl (35.5 u) = 58.5 u

🔹 10. The Mole Concept

🔸 What is a Mole?

A mole is the amount of substance that contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro’s number).

🔸 Key Points:

 1 mole of atoms = Atomic mass in grams (gram atom)

 1 mole of molecules = Molecular mass in grams (gram molecule)

 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles

🔹 11. Molar Mass

 Mass of 1 mole of a substance in grams.

 It is numerically equal to the atomic/molecular mass.

o Example:

 H₂O → 18 g/mol

 O₂ → 32 g/mol

🔹 12. Calculations Using Mole Concept

🔸 (i) Number of Moles:

Moles=Given mass (g)Molar mass (g/mol)\text{Moles} = \frac{\text{Given mass (g)}}{\

🔸 (ii) Mass from Moles:

🔸 (iii) Number of Particles:

Particles=Number of moles×6.022×1023\text{Particles} = \text{Number of moles} \times

🔹 13. Some Common Substances and Their Formulae

Compound Formula Molar Mass (g/mol)

Water H₂O 18

Carbon dioxide CO₂ 44

Methane CH₄ 16

Ammonia NH₃ 17

Glucose C₆H₁₂O₆ 180

🔹 14. Difference Between Atom and Molecule

Atom Molecule

Smallest unit of element Smallest unit of compound or element

May or may not exist freely Usually exists freely

E.g. H, O, Na E.g. H₂, O₂, CO₂

🔹 15. Difference Between Ion and Molecule

Ion Molecule

Charged particle Electrically neutral

Can be monoatomic/polyatomic Made of 2+ atoms

E.g. Na⁺, SO₄²⁻ E.g. H₂O, NH₃

✅ Summary

 Matter is made up of atoms and molecules.

 Dalton’s atomic theory was a major milestone in chemistry.

 Elements are represented by symbols; compounds by formulas.

 Mole concept helps count particles in a given mass.

 Molecular and formula masses are based on atomic mass units.

 Chemistry is based on quantitative relationships—mass, moles, and particles.