Nepal Electricity Authority

Level 4/5
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
By
Er. Madhav Prasad Nagarkoti
(Electrical Engineer, NEA)
(BE in Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Kathmandu University, 2010)
(MSC in Power System Engineering, TU-IOE, Pulchowk Campus-Running, 2078)
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 1
Electric Charge:
▪ “Electric Charge is the property of subatomic particles that causes it to experience a
force when placed in an electric and magnetic field.” ▪Electric charges are of two
types:
1. Positive charge
2. Negative charge

1. Positive charge:
• A positive charge occurs when an atom has more protons than electrons.
• Protons have a positive charge.
2. Negative charge:
• When an object has more electrons than protons is called a negative charge.
• Electrons have a negative charge.

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▪ When an atom has equal number of electrons and protons, then the atom is neutral
or chargeless. Neutrons have a neutral electric charge (neither negative nor
positive).
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▪ Like charges repel each other.

▪ Unlike charges attract each other. ▪Unit of charge is Coulomb (C).

1 Coulomb(C): Charge on 625×1016 electron.

▪ Charge of one electron = Coulomb(C) = 1.6×10−19C
▪ Charge (Q) = current (i) × time (t)
▪ Charge (Q) = number of electrons (n) × charge of an electron (e)
Electric Current:
▪ The continuous flow of free electrons in an any electrical circuit is known as electric
current.
▪ In other words, the rate of flow of electric charge through a section of conductor is
called electric current.

Current(I) =

▪ Also, from Ohm’s law, Current(I) =

▪ Unit of current is C/S or Ampere(A).

1 Ampere Current: If 1 Coulomb of charge passes through a section of conductor
for 1 second, then current flowing through a conductor will be 1 A.

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 Voltage:
▪ Voltage or potential difference is the total work done required to move a unit of charge from one
pole to another through a conductor.
▪ Voltage is also referred to as electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
▪Mathematically,

Where,
V= Voltage in volts
I = Current in amperes
R = Resistance in ohms
▪ Also,
�=
∇𝑈
𝑄

∇𝑈 = Change in potential energy (J)

Where,

Q = Charge (C)
▪ Unit of voltage is Volt (V) or J/C.
▪ The most common sources of voltage are batteries and generators.
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Comparison between Emf and Potential difference:
▪ Emf is the measure of energy that it gives to each coulomb of charge, whereas the
potential difference is the amount of energy used by the one coulomb of charge.
▪ Emf is represented by the symbol ‘E’ whereas the symbol ‘V’ represents the potential
difference.
▪ Emf does not depend on the internal resistance of the
circuit whereas the potential difference depends on the
resistance of the circuit.
V = E − 𝐼. 𝑟 Where,
V=potential difference
E=Emf
r=internal resistance of cell I=current
through circuit

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▪ Emf transmits current throughout the circuit whereas potential difference transmits current
between any two points.
▪ Emf is a cause, whereas potential difference is an effect.

Example:
▪ Consider a circuit shown in the figure below.
• A 12 volt supply applies across the resistance of the circuit i.e. cell emf
is 12 V.
• Thus, cell provides 12 Joules of energy to each coulomb of charge.
• The potential difference between any two points, says A and B, is the energy used by one coulomb of
charge in moving from one point (A) to the other (B).
• Thus, the potential difference between points A and B is 7 volts.
• This means that the 7 Joules of energy is used by each coulomb of charge.
Electric Circuit:
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▪ An electric circuit is a closed loop network which provides a return path for the flow
of current.
▪ In other words, an electric circuit is a closed conducting path in which current can
flow.
▪ An electric circuit is also known as electrical network.

Figure: Electric circuit

Circuit Elements:
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▪ A circuit element is an idealized mathematical model of a two-terminal electrical device that is
completely characterized by its voltage-current relationship.
▪ Circuit elements can be categorized as either
1. Active Circuit Elements 2.
Passive circuit Elements

1. Active Circuit Elements:

▪ Active Elements are those which can generate and supply energy to the circuit.
▪ Active elements have the ability to electrically control electron flow (i.e. the flow of charge).
▪ Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.
▪ Examples include batteries, generators, operational amplifiers, solar cells, SCRs and diodes.
▪ They are:
1.Independent Source
2.Dependent Source
Independent Source:

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▪ Independent source are the sources, whose output value doesn’t depend upon the circuit
parameters like voltage and current.
▪ They are of two types
a. Independent voltage source
b. Independent current source

Independent voltage source:

• Independent voltage source has a voltage that Figure: Independent voltage
is independent of other quantities in a circuit i.e. source not affected by any other
quantity.
Independent current source:
• Independent current source maintains a current
which is unaffected by any other quantities.
Figure: Independent current
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 source
Dependent Source:
▪ Dependent sources are the sources that change their output depending on other parts of
the circuit.

Figure: Dependent voltage source Figure: Dependent current source

▪ It’s just a mathematical representation.

▪ Dependent sources are most helpful, BJT will be designed as a dependent current source
whose magnitude depends on the magnitude of the current maintained into its
controlling base terminal.
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 ▪ OP-AMP can be described as a voltage source dependent on the differential input
voltage between its input terminals.
▪ Depending upon the source it can be classified as
1.Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) The
source delivers the voltage as per the voltage of the dependent
element.
V = f (𝑽𝑿)
2.Voltage-controlled current source
(VCCS)
The source delivers the currents as per the voltage of
the dependent element.
I = f (𝑽𝑿)
3.Current-controlled current source
(CCCS)
The source delivers the current as per the current of the
dependent elements.
I = f (𝑰𝑿)
4.Current-controlled voltage source
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(CCVS)
The source delivers the voltage as per the current
of the dependent element.
V = f (𝑰𝑿)

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2. Passive circuit Elements:
▪ A passive circuit element is an electric component which can only receive energy.
▪ It can either dissipate, absorb or store energy in an electric field or a magnetic field.
▪ Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate.
▪ The examples of passive components are resistor, inductor, capacitor and transformer, etc.
▪ As energy is not actually being amplified – a transformer is classified as a passive element.
Electric Power P):

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▪ The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called electric power. i.e.,

Electric power

or, P ––––(i) [ W = V.Q, Q = I.t]

Also, P = I2. R –––––––––––(ii) [ V = I.R]

P
▪ The unit of electric power is J/S or watt (W).
▪ 1 Watt power → The power consumed in the circuit is 1 watt if the 1 volt p.d.
causes 1 A current to flow through the circuit.
Electrical Energy (E):
▪ The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy. i.e.,
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 Electrical Energy = Electrical power (p) x time (t)
E = V . I . t –––––––––––(i)
Also, E = I2. R . t ––––––––––(ii)

E . t ––––––––––(iii)
▪ The unit of an electrical energy is Watt–second or Joule.
▪ The most commonly used unit of electrical energy is kWhr (or unit) in our daily life.
▪ 1 kWhr (or 1 unit) → The energy consumed by 1kw (or 1000w) load in 1 hour is
known as 1kwhr (or 1 unit) electrical energy.

Resistance:
▪ Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.
▪ Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
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 Figure: Symbol of resistor
Factors affecting the resistance of any conductor:
▪ Resistance of conductor is directly proportional to the length of that conductor. i.e.,
R α L …………(i)
▪ Resistance of conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of that conductor
R α …………(ii)
▪ Resistance of conductor depends upon nature of the conductor material and temperature.
▪ From equation (i) and (ii),
Rα
R=
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 Where,
ρ = specific resistance or resistivity (Ω-m) which depends upon the
material used to make the wire.
Resistivity:
▪ Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a wire of that substance with unit length and
unit area of cross-section.
▪ The units of resistivity are Ohm-meters or Ω-m.
▪ Poor conductors have high resistivity. The insulator has a high resistivity.
▪ It depends upon the nature of material i.e., resistivity of copper and aluminum are
different.
Conductivity:
• Reciprocal of resistivity is known as conductivity.
i.e.,

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 Where, =
conductivity ρ =
resistivity

• Conductivity represents a material's ability to conduct electric current.

• Its unit is Siemens per meter (S/m) or Mho/m.
Question: If a wire of resistance R is stretched to double of its length, then new
resistance will be:

(a) R/2
(b) 2R
(c) 4R
(d) 16R

Question: The length of the resistance wire is increased by 10%. What is the
corresponding change in the resistance of wire?
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(a) 10%
(b) 25%(c)
21%
(d) 9%
Role of Resistance:
▪ Opposition to Current Flow: Resistance is a property of materials that opposes the
flow of electric current.
▪ Current Limitation: Resistance is used in circuits to limit the amount of current
flowing through a component or circuit.
▪ Voltage Division: Resistance also plays a role in dividing voltage across different
components in a circuit.
▪ As a heating element: A resistor as a heating element converts electrical energy into
heat through the process of Joule’s law of heating.
▪ Load Matching: Resistance is employed in circuits to match the load requirements of
different components.
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▪ Temperature and Light Control: Some components, such as thermistors and
photoresistors, exhibit resistance changes based on external factors like temperature or
light intensity.
Resistances in Series:
▪ Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series when the same amount of
current flows through all the resistors.

Figure: Series connection of resistors

▪ In such circuits, the voltage across each resistor is different.
▪ In a series connection, if any resistor is broken or a fault occurs, then the entire circuit
is turned off.
▪ The construction of a series circuit is simpler compared to a parallel circuit.
▪ For the above circuit, the total resistance is given as
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 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1+𝑅2+ ….. +𝑅𝑛
▪ The total resistance of the system is just the total sum of individual resistances.
Voltage Divider Rule:
▪ A series circuit acts as a voltage divider as it divides the total supply voltage into
different voltages across the circuit elements.
▪ Figure2 shows a voltage divider circuit in which the total supply voltage V has been
divided into voltages V1 and V2 across two resistances R1 and R2.
▪ Although, the current through both resistances is same,
i.e., I.

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 Resistances in Parallel:
▪ Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the one end of each resistors are joined to a point
and other ends of each resistors are joined to an another points such that voltage across all the resistors will be
same.

Figure: Parallel connection of resistors

▪ In such circuits, the current is branched out and recombined when branches meet at a common point.
▪ A resistor or any other component can be connected or disconnected easily without affecting other elements in a
parallel circuit.
▪ The figure above shows the ‘n’ number of resistors connected in parallel. The following relation gives
the total resistance here

+ …….+
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▪ The sum of reciprocals of resistance of an individual resistor is the total reciprocal resistance of the system.
Current Divider Rule:
▪ A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as it divides the total circuit current in its all
branches.
▪ Figure1 shows a current divider circuit in which the total circuit current I has been divided
into currents I1 and I2 in two parallel branches with resistances R1 and R2.
▪ Although, we can notice that the voltage drop across both resistances is same, i.e., V.

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Inductance:
▪ An inductor is called a coil or a reactor which has inductance.
▪ Inductance is the property of a substance which opposes the change in current flowing
through it.
▪ An inductor consists of an insulated wire wound in a coil.
▪ When a current flows through it, energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the
coil.
▪ When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in the inductor, according to the faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.
▪ The direction of induced emf is given by Lenz's law i.e. direction of induced emf is always
such that it opposes the change in current that created it. ▪As a result, inductor always
oppose change in current.
▪ Inductance is normally represented by L and its unit is Henry (H).
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Inductance is given by,

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 Role of Inductor:
▪ Inductors as chokes: Inductors are used as chokes where it blocks AC while allowing
DC to pass.
▪ Inductors as filters: They are used in electronic filters to separate signals of different
frequencies.
▪ Inductors as tuner: They are used in combination with capacitors to make tuned
circuits used to tune radio and TV receivers.
▪ Inductors as reactors: Inductors are used as reactors in power systems, where they
are used to limit switching currents and fault currents.
▪ Inductors as reactive compensators: They are used as reactive compensator to limit
voltage in system in case of light load or no load in transmission line.
▪ Inductors as energy storing deice: Inductors are used as energy storage device in
many SMPS to produce DC current.
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Capacitor:
▪ Capacitor is a circuit element that can store electric charge.
▪ The capacitor is made of two close conductors that are separated by a
dielectric medium.
▪ The electric charge accumulates at the plates when connected to power
source.
▪ It is sometimes called condenser and it has the ability to store energy in the
form of an electrical charge producing a p.d. across its plates.
 ▪ Capacitance of the capacitor is the property to store charge on its plates in
the
▪ Capacitance of a capacitor is given by,
Capacitance (C) = Charge
stored (Q)
p.d. between two plates (V)
▪The unit of capacitance is Farad (F).

form of an electrostatic field, which opposes the change of voltage across it.

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 Where,
A = cross
sectional area of plate
d = separation
between plates
=
Permittivity
of medium
▪ The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by, Fig.: Parallel plate capacitor
C=
Permittivity ( ):
▪ Permittivity measures the ability of a material to store energy within the
material.
▪ The vacuum has the least possible value of Permittivity.

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 ▪ This is commonly referred to as the Permittivity of Free Space, which is
equal to
8.85✕10−12 Farad/meter.

▪ Relative permittivity
▪ Relative permittivity (𝜀𝑟) is unitless or dimensionless quantity i.e., it has no
unit.
Roles of Capacitor:
▪ Capacitor as blocking element: Capacitors are used to block DC while
allowing AC to pass.
▪ Capacitor as filter: In rectifier circuit, capacitor acts to filter the output so
that there is little ripple.

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Ohm’s Law:
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 ▪ The relationship between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R) in
a DC circuit was first discovered by German scientist George Simon
ohm.
▪ This relationship is called Ohm's law.
▪ Ohm's law states that, "the current through any conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its two ends,
provided that the physical condition (i.e., temperature) do not change".
i.e.,
I V

or, V = I.R ----------(i) or, =

Constant ----------(ii)

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▪ Where, 'R' is the proportionality constant and is known as resistance of
the conductor between two ends.
▪ From equation (i), it may also be stated that, 'the ratio of potential
difference between two ends of conductor to the current flowing through
the conductor is always constant, provided that physical conditions do not
change." ▪In other forms, equation (i) can be written as.

I = –––––––––––(iii)

▪ Ohm’s law triangle:

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Verification Ohm’s law:
▪ To verify ohm's law, let us consider a circuit as shown in figure and p.d. across
the conductor having resistance 'R' is increased step by step and
corresponding current following through the conductor is noted down.
▪ After that the ratio of p.d. to the current is calculated.
▪ If this ratio is constant at every step, then ohm's law is verified. i.e.,

Constant

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▪ If we plot graph between current and potential difference, then we will obtain
the straight line passing through the origin having certain slope.
▪ This slope gives the value of resistance of the conductor.

Slope Resistance

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 I R
A

V
Fig.: Verification of Ohm’s law

 V
I
I
Fig.: Graph between voltage and current
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Limitations of Ohm’s law:
▪ It is valid only when physical condition like temperature is kept
constant. ▪It is valid only for conductors but not for insulators and
semi–conductor.
▪ Ohm’s law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. Unilateral
networks allow the current to flow only in one direction. Examples of
such networks include diodes, transistors etc.
▪ Ohm’s law is not applicable in the case of non-linear objects like
thyristor, vacuum tube (vacuum radio valves ) etc..
▪ Calculation using Ohm’s law can be difficult in the case of complicated
circuits.

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▪ Ohm’s law is not applicable in the case of electrolysis.
Applications of Ohm’s law:
▪ Ohm’s law is used to calculate the values of current, voltage, or resistance.
▪ Using Ohm’s law formula, any one of the values can be derived if the other
two are given.
▪ Power consumption can also be calculated using Ohm’s law formula.
▪ The knob used to control the speed of fans at home is based on the
workings of
Ohm’s law.
▪ The power flow in household electrical appliances such as heaters, irons,
and kettles are computed with the help of Ohm’s Law.

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▪ Ohm’s law is also used in designing and studying DC (direct current)
measuring devices such as ammeters and voltmeters.
Kirchoff’s Law:
▪ In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of
rules or laws which deal with the conservation of charge (or current) and
energy within electrical circuits.
▪ These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws.
• Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL):Kirchhoff’s laws dealing with the
current flowing around a closed circuit.
• Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL): Kirchhoff’s law dealing with the voltage
sources present in a closed circuit.

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Kirchoff’s Current Law:

σ𝐼=0
▪ It states that, "the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a point
or a junction 'o' is zero." i.e.,
or, 𝐼1 + (–𝐼2) + 𝐼3 + (–𝐼4) = 0
𝐼1 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼4
[ ∵ Incoming current is taken + ve and outgoing current is taken
–ve]
▪ In other words, KCL states that, "the sum of all the incoming
current is equal to the sum of all the outgoing currents at a
point or a junction in an electrical networks".
▪ Explanation: Consider a circuit as shown in figure. Now We
can use Ohm’s Law to determine the individual branch
currents through each resistor as: I = V/R, thus:
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 =3A and =2A
▪ From above we know that Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the
currents entering a junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the
junction, and in our simple example above, there is one current, IT going
into the junction at node B and two currents leaving the junction, I1 and I2.
▪ Now, to find current reaching at point B, applying KCL,
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼𝑇 = 3+2 = 5 A
▪ As the two currents entering junction E are 3 amps and 2 amps respectively,
the sum of the currents entering point F is therefore: 3 + 2 = 5 amperes.

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 R C R
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
▪ It states that, "In any closed circuit or mesh, the
algebraic sum of all the emf's and the voltage drops
is
equal to zero.”2
▪ In other words. It states that, "In any closed circuit
or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the emf's are equal
to the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops.“
▪ Explanation: To explain KVL, let us assume the
circuit as shown in figure.
▪ There are three loops ABCFA, ABCDEFA and
CDEFC.
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▪ KVL can be applied to these closed loops to get desired equations.
▪ In loop ABCFA, Applying KVL,

E1 – I1R1 – (I1 + I2) R3 = 0

E1 = I1 R1 + (I1 + I2) R3 –––––(i)
▪ In loop ABCDEFA, Applying KVL, E1 – E2 – I1 R1 + I2 R2 = 0

E1 – E2 = I1 R1 – I2 R2 ––––––––(ii)

▪ In loop CDEFC, Applying KVL,

– E2 + I2 R2 + (I1 + I2) R3 = 0
E2 = I2 R2 + (I1 + I2) R3 ––––––(iii) Uses of Kirchhoff’s law:
▪ This laws are used to calculate the unknown values of current and voltages
in the circuit.
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▪ It helps to detect the current flow direction in various circuit loops.
▪ It helps to understanding how energy passes via an electric circuit.
▪ Kirchhoff’s law was the first law that helped the analysis and calculation of
complex circuits become manageable and easy.
▪ The Wheatstone bridge is an essential application of Kirchhoff’s laws.
▪ It is also used in mesh and node analysis.
Star/Delta and Delta/Star Transformation:
▪ Complicated networks can be simplified by successively replacing delta meshes
by equivalent star systems and vice–versa.

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Superposition Theorem:
▪ It states that, "In any linear resistive network containing several sources, the
voltage across or the current through any resistor or source may be calculated by
adding algebraically all the individual voltages or currents caused by the separate
independent sources acting alone, with all other independent voltage sources
replaced by internal resistance (or short circuit) and current sources replaced by
internal resistance (or open circuit)." Dependent sources are active in all cases.
▪Procedure for superposition Theorem:
1. Identify the number of independent sources.
2. Take one independent source at a time while other sources are replaced by their
internal resistances and calculate current through or voltage across given element.
3. Repeat step 2 for all the remaining independent sources.
4. Add all the currents or voltages caused due to individual independent sources.

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Example: This theorem can be better understood with a numerical examples
given below. Let us find the current passing through 3 Ohm resistor in the
circuit of fig. (i) using super position theorem. 5 10
I
▪ Now, considering 20 V source only, (Refer fig.(ii)) 20v5A I 3
II
I1 I2
I’ A
fig (i)
▪ Again, considering 5 A source only, (Refer fig.(iii)) 5 10

I’’ A fig(i) I1
20v 3
▪ Current through 3 resistor (I) = I’ + I’’
= 2.5 + 3.125 fig (ii)

= 5.625 A 5 10


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 I11
3

5
fig.(iii)
▪ Again, current through same resistor can be Calculated using KVL, (Refer fig.(i))
▪Applying KVL in mesh I,
20 – 5I1 – 3 (I1 –
I2) = 0 or, 20 = 5I1
+ 3I1 – 3I2 or, 20 =
8I1 – 3I2 ––––(i)
▪In second
mesh II,
I2 = – 5 A

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▪ From equation (i),

I A
Current through 3 resistor (I) = I1 – I2 = 0.625 – (–5) =
5.625A ▪Hence, superposition theorem is verified.

Thevenin's Theorem:
▪ It states that, "In any two terminal linear network having a number of voltage
sources, current sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent
circuit consisting of a simple voltage source in series with a resistance, where the
value of voltage is equal to the open circuit voltage across the two terminals of the
network and resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance measured between the

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 terminals with replacing voltage source and current source by their respective
internal resistances."

Rth

RL
Vth

fig.(v): Thevenin’s equivalent

circuit
▪ To verify this theorem, let us assume a circuit shown in fig. (i). In the circuit, if the
load resistor 24 is connected to Thevenin's equivalent circuit, it will have the

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 same current through it and same voltage across its terminals as it experienced in
the original circuit.
▪ To show this, let us find the current passing through the 24 resistance due to
original circuit.

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Norton’s Theorem:

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▪ It states that, "any two terminal linear network having a number of current sources,
voltage sources and resistance can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source in parallel with a resistance."
▪ The value of current source is the short circuit current through the two terminals of
the network and the resistance is the equivalent resistance measured between the
terminals of the network with replacing all the voltage source by short circuit and
current sources by open circuit (or by their respective internal resistances).

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

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Alternating current fundamentals:
Electromagnetic Induction:
▪ The induction of an electromotive force (EMF) either by moving the conductor
within stationary magnetic field or by placing the stationary conductor within
varying magnetic field is called ‘Electromagnetic Induction’.
▪ In case of DC generator, emf is induced by moving armature conductors placed in
rotor within stationary magnetic field.
▪ In case of AC generator, emf is induced by placing stationary armature conductors
in stator within varying magnetic field produced by rotor field winding.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:
▪ Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction shows the relationship between
magnetic field, electric current, and an electromotive force(EMF).

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▪ In nature, there are two mutually dependent phenomena namely electricity and
magnetism.
▪ At present, it is a well-known fact that a changing magnetic field can produce an
EMF and a moving charge (or electric current) can produce a magnetic field.
▪ Michael Faraday who developed two basic laws of electromagnetic induction in
1831.
▪ These laws are popularly known as Faraday’s First Law and Faraday’s Second
Law of Electromagnetic Induction. These two laws explain how a changing
magnetic field produces an EMF in a moving conductor.
First Law: Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction
states that “Whenever a magnetic field linked to a conductor
changes, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the
conductor.”

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Second Law: Faraday’s second law states that “the
magnitude of the induced emf in the conductor is equal to
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked to the conductor.”
▪ Consider a coil having N conductors and a magnet is moving
towards the coil, then

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▪ The change in flux linkage is,

▪ According to Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction, the EMF

induced in the conductor is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.

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Considering Lenz’s law, i.e. induced EMF always opposes the cause producing it.

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Alternating current (AC):
▪ Magnitude of ac changes continuous with
respect to time.
▪ Magnitude changes from zero to maximum.
▪ Direction of current reverse periodically.
▪ Ac contains two half cycle.
• Positive half cycle → current is positive •
Negative half cycle → current is negative ▪It
has frequency.
Fig.: Ac waveforms
Direct current (DC):
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▪ No change with time.
▪ Constant magnitude with time.
▪ It is also called steady current.
▪ Its frequency is zero.
Advantages of AC over DC:
▪ Alternating voltage can be stepped up & stepped down efficiently.
▪ Alternating current can easily generated, transmitted and utilized as compared to
DC.
▪ Ac devices are generally simpler in construction and cheaper.
▪ Ac can be controlled by choke coil at small energy losses whereas Dc can be
controlled only by resistance and energy losses are heavy.
Disadvantages of AC:

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▪ Ac is more dangerous compared to DC.
▪ Major portion of the ac flows through the surface of the conductor. So where a
thick wire is required a number of thin wire have to be twisted to form a thick
wire.

▪
Generation of Alternating Current:
▪ Alternating voltage may be
generated by rotating a coil in a
magnetic field, as shown in Fig. (a)
or by rotating a magnetic field
within a stationary coil, as shown in
Fig. 11.1 (b).

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 ▪ The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns in the
coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
▪ Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the two ways shown above, but
rotating-field method is the one which is mostly used in practice.
Equations of Alternating Currents and Voltages:
▪ An AC generator uses the principle of Faraday’s law of
of electromagnetic induction. coil
▪ It states that when a moving conductor cut the
magnetic field then emf is induced in the conductor.
▪ Inside this magnetic field a single rectangular loop
of wire rotes around a fixed axis allowing it to cut
the magnetic flux at various angles as shown figure
1.
▪ Consider a rectangular coil having;

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 A = Area of coil (𝑚2) ω=Angular
velocity (radians/second)
Փ = Maximum flux (wb)

Fig.1: Generation of
EMF
▪ When
coil is
along
XX’
(perpendi
cular to

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the lines of flux), flux linking with coil= Փ ▪ When
. coil is
along

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 YY’ (parallel to the lines of flux), flux
linking with the coil is zero.

▪ When coil is making an angle θ with respect to XX’

flux linkingwith coil, Փ= Փ cosωt [ θ = ωt] Fig.2: Alternating induced EMF

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Advantages of Sine Wave:
▪ Sine can be expressed in a simple mathematical form easily.
▪ In a ac machine, sinusoidal wave produce the least iron & copper losses for a given
output.
▪ Sine wave produces minimum disturbance in electrical circuit.
▪ Any non periodical sinusoidal wave can be expressed as a sum of a number of sine
waves of different frequencies.
▪ The rate of change of any sinusoidal quantity is also sinusoidal.
Ac Terminologies:
Waveform:
▪ It is defined as the graph between magnitude of alternating quantity (on Y axis) against time
(on X axis).

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 Fig.: Ac waveforms
Cycle:
▪It is defined as one complete set of positive, negative and zero
values of an alternating quantity.
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Instantaneous value:
▪ It is defined as the value of an alternating quantity at a
particular instant of given time.
▪ Generally denoted by small letters. e.g. i= Instantaneous
value of current v= Instantaneous value of voltage p=
Instantaneous values of power
Amplitude/ Peak value/ Crest value/ Maximum value:
▪It is defined as the maximum value (either positive or

𝐼𝑚 = Maximum
negative) attained by an alternating quantity in one cycle.
▪Generally denoted by capital letters. e.g.

𝑉𝑚 = Maximum value of voltage

Value of current

𝑃𝑚 = Maximum values of power

Average value:
▪ It is defined as the average of all instantaneous value of alternating quantities over a half cycle. e.g.

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 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 = Average value of voltage 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
Average value of current RMS value:
▪ It is the equivalent dc current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces same amount of heat as produced by an alternating current when flowing through the

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =Root Mean Square value of voltage

same circuit for the same time. e.g.

Root Mean Square value of current

▪ It is defined as number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second. Symbol is f.
Unit is Hertz (Hz).
Time period:
▪ It is defined as time taken to complete one cycle. Symbol is T. Unit is seconds.
Power factor:
▪ It is defined as the cosine of angle between voltage and current.

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▪ Power Factor where Փ is the
angle between voltage and current.
Active power:
▪ It is the actual power consumed in any circuit. Fig.: Impedance triangle
▪ It is given by product of rms voltage and rms
current and cosine angle between voltage and
current (VI cosՓ).
▪ Active Power = P = 𝐼2R = VI cosՓ.
▪ Unit is Watt (W) or kW.
Fig.: Power triangle
Reactive power:
▪ The power drawn by the circuit due to reactive component of current is called as reactive power.

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▪ It is given by product of rms voltage and rms current and sine angle between voltage and current

▪ Reactive Power = Q = 𝐼2X = VI sinՓ.

(VI sinՓ).

▪ Unit is VAR or kVAR.

Apparent power:
▪ It is the product of rms value of voltage and rms value of current.
▪ It is total power supplied to the circuit.
▪ Apparent Power = S = VI.
▪ Unit is VA or kVA.
Peak factor/ Crest factor:
▪ It is defined as the ratio of peak value (crest value or maximum value) to rms value of an

▪ Peak factor = 𝐾𝑃= 1.414 for sine wave.

alternating quantity.

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Form factor:
▪ It is defined as the ratio of rms value to average value of an alternating quantity.
▪ Denoted by 𝐾𝑓.
▪ Form factor 𝐾𝑓 = 1.11 for sine wave.

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Phase difference:
▪ It is defined as angular displacement between two zero values or two maximum values of the
two-alternating quantity having same frequency.

Fig.: Ac phase difference

Phase:

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▪ The phase of an alternating quantity is defined as the divisional part of a cycle through
which the quantity moves forward from a selected origin.
▪ The two quantities have the same frequency, and their maximum and minimum value
occur at the same point, then the quantities are said to have in the same phase.
Leading phase difference:
▪ If a quantity which attains its zero or positive maximum value before the compared to
the other quantity is known to have leading phase difference.
Lagging phase difference:
▪ If a quantity which attains its zero or positive maximum value after the other quantity
is known to have lagging phase difference.

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Average value of sinusoidal Ac signal:

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Rms value of sinusoidal Ac signal:

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Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities:
▪Sinusoidal expression given as: v(t) = 𝑉𝑚 sin (ωt ± Φ) representing the sinusoid
in the time domain form.

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▪ Phasor is a quantity that has both “Magnitude” and “Direction”.

Fig.: Phasor representation of alternating quantities

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 Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform:
▪ The generalized mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be written as:
v = 𝑉𝑚sinωt
i = 𝐼𝑚sin(ωt-Փ)

Fig.1: Waveforms of voltage and current Fig.2: Phasor diagram of voltage and current
▪ As shown in the above voltage and current equations, waveforms and phasor diagram the current, i is lagging
the voltage, v by angle Փ.
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▪ This shows that phase difference between voltage and current is Փ.

AC Through Purely Resistive Circuit:

𝑉𝑚sinωt is applied.
▪ The figure shown below an AC circuit consisting of a pure resistor to which an alternating voltage v =

Fig.: AC through pure resistor

To find the equations for Voltage and Current,

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▪ Consider an alternating sinusoidal voltage v is applied across the pure resistor. Where, v = 𝑉𝑚sinωt
▪According to ohm’s law,
�
=
i �

i = 𝐼𝑚sinωt
▪ From above equations, it is clear that the
current is in phase with voltage for purely
resistive circuit. Fig.1: Waveform of v & i Fig.2: Phasor diagram of v & i

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▪ Instantaneous power: The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is
given by the product of the instantaneous values of voltage and current.

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▪ Average power:

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 AC Through Purely Inductive Circuit:
▪ The Figure below shows an AC circuit consisting of a

𝑉𝑚sinωt is applied.
pure Inductor to which an alternating voltage v =

Equations for Voltage and Current,

▪ As shown in the figure voltage source is,

v = 𝑉𝑚sinωt
▪ Due to self-inductance of the coil, there will be emf indued in it.
▪ This back emf will oppose the instantaneous rise Fig.: AC through pure inductor or fall of current through
the coil, it is given by
� 𝑏 = −�𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖

is equal and opposite to back emf. v = −𝑒𝑏

▪ As, circuit does not contain any resistance, there is no ohmic drop and hence applied voltage
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or,
or, di

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 Fig.: Waveform of v, I & p

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AC Through Purely Capacitive Circuit:

𝑚 sinωt.
▪ The figure below shows a capacitor of capacitance C farads
connected to an a.c. voltage supply v = �
Equations for Voltage & Current, �
▪ As show in the figure, voltage source is,

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 4/24/2024 115
Fig.1: Waveform of v &i Fig.2: Phasor diagram of v &i
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 4/24/2024 117
Fig.: Waveform of v, i & p
 Ac Through Series Resistance-Inductance (R-L)
Circuit:
▪ Consider a circuit consisting of a resistor of
resistance R Ohms and a purely inductive coil of
inductance L Henry in series as shown in the figure
below.
▪ In the series circuit, the current it flowing through R
and L will be the same.

The vector sum of voltage across resistor 𝑉𝑅 and voltage across inductor 𝑉𝐿 will be equal to
▪ But the voltage across them will be different.
▪
supply voltage v.
Waveforms and Phasor Diagram:
▪ The voltage and current waveforms in R-L series circuit is shown in figure.
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 vector 𝑉𝑅 is drawn superimposed to scale onto the current vector and in purely inductive
▪ We know that in purely resistive the voltage and current both are in phase and therefore

circuit the current I lag the voltage 𝑉𝐿 by 900.

▪ So, to draw the vector diagram, first I taken as the reference.

▪ Next 𝑉𝑅 drawn in phase with I.

▪ This is shown in the figure below.

Next 𝑉𝐿 is drawn 900 leading the I.

The supply voltage V is then phasor sum of 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐿.
▪
▪

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Ac Through Series Resistance-Capacitor (R-C) Circuit:

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Ac Through Series Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor (R-L-C) Circuit:

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Series resonance RLC circuit:

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Parallel resonance RLC circuit:

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Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance:

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Single Phase AC Supply:
▪ It consists of two wires, one for phase and another for
neutral.
▪ This type of power supply is used when the loads (home
appliances) are generally heating and lighting with some
small electric motors.
▪ A single phase system voltage achieves a peak value two ▪ The applications of this
times; the direct power is not stable. supply are for running the
▪ A single phase system can be obtained form the secondary small home appliances like
of three-phase transformer by two techniques. air conditioners, fans,
heater, bulbs etc.
o Connection between two phases o Connection between
any one phase and neutral. Fig.: Single phase waveform
▪ These two will give dissimilar voltages from a given
power supply and provides phase supply up to 230V.
Single Phase Supply Benefits:
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▪ The design is less complex.
▪ Design cost is less.
▪ Most efficient AC power supply for up to 1000 watts
▪ Single Phase AC Power Supply is most competent for up to 1000 watts. ▪Wide-range of
application uses.

Single Phase Supply Applications:

▪ This power supply is applicable for homes as well as businesses.
▪ Used to supply plenty of power for homes, as well as nonindustrial businesses.
▪ This power supply is sufficient to run the motors up to about 5 horsepower (hp).

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Three Phase AC Supply:
▪ The three-phase power supply consists four wires such as
one neutral as well as three phase conductors.
▪ The three conductors are away from phase & space 120º
apart from each other.
▪ Three phase power supplies can be utilized as a single- ▪ The power of this
phase AC power supply. system can be
illustrated in two
▪ For the small load, 1-phase AC power supply, as well as
configurations o Star
neutral, can be chosen from the 3-phase AC power supply
connection o Delta
system.
connection.
▪ This supply is constant and not at all totally falls to zero. Fig.: Three phase waveform
Three Phase Supply Benefits:
▪ Copper utilization reduction,
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▪ Reducing of security risks for employees, ▪The efficiency of the Conductor is Greater, ▪Facility
to run high power loads.

Three Phase Supply Applications:

▪ These types of supplies are used in power grids, mobile towers, data centers, aircraft, shipboard, as
well as other electrical loads larger than 1000 watts.
▪ It is applicable to industrial, manufacturing, and large businesses.

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Comparison Between Star and Delta Connection:

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Single phase and three phase AC systems:
Heating Effect of Electric Current:
▪ When electric current is passed through a conductor, heat is generated in the conductor. This
effect of electric current is known as heating effect of electric current.
▪ The heating effect produced by an electric current, I through a conductor of resistance, R for
a time, t is given by,
H = 𝐼2𝑅𝑡
▪ This expression is called the Joule’s law of heating.
▪ Therefore, according to the Joule’s law of heating, the heat produced in a conductor is

o square of current through the conductor (H α 𝐼2), o resistance of the conductor (H α

directly proportional to;

R), and o time for which current being passed through the conductor (H α t).
Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current:
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▪ Electric Iron:
o A heating coil is surrounded by Mica which is placed in between metal component of iron and the coil.
o When current is passed through the coil, the heat produced is transmitted to the metallic component through mica.
o Finally, the metal component is heated and utilized for ironing garments.
▪ Electric Heater:
o A coil made of high resistance nichrome wire is used in an electric heater. o The coil is coiled around grooves formed
of ceramic or China clay. o When current flows through the coil, it heats up, which is then utilized to heat cooking pot.
▪ Electric Fuse:
o When the current through the circuit increases beyond the rated current of fuse wire, then the wire melts due to
overheating, causing the electrical circuit to break.
▪ Water Heater and Electric Heater:
o When the water heater is connected to an electrical source, then the heat produced in the heating coil made up of
Nichrome wire will heat the water.
▪ Electric Bulb:

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 o When the current is passed through the filament made up of tungsten, then it is heated due to the high resistance of
filament material producing light and heat.
Advantages of Heating by Electric Current in Comparison to Other Heating Methods:
▪Electrical heating is economical.
▪ It is cleanliness method for heating.
▪ There is absence of flue gases.
▪ Heat output can be easily controlled.
▪ Automatic protection against over-currents or overheating can be provided through suitable
switchgears in the electric heating system.
▪ Higher temperature can be achieved.
▪ Electrical heating is more efficient.
General norms of system voltage regulation and frequency regulation:
Electricity Regulation Act, 2050: Chapter 4
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Rule: 40
Supply Voltage:
(1) The standard of supply voltage shall have to be maintained as follows: (a) 230 volt in A.C. single
phase and 400 volt in three phase for general consumers. (b) for those who want a supply of
electricity from four wires, the electric service shall be made available in 230/400 volt from
A.C. three phases.
(2) The fluctuation shall not be allowed for more than five percent in standard volt as mentioned in
Clauses (a) and (b) of subrule (1)

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Rule:
41
High Voltage Distribution System:
(1) The standard of the voltage in the high voltage distribution system, the standard of
distribution system shall be maintained as follows:
(a) 3,300 volt
(b) 6,600 volt
(c) 11,000 volt
(d) 22,000 volt
(e) 33,000 volt
(2) The fluctuation shall not be allowed for more than five percent in standard volt as
mentioned in Clauses (a) to (e) of subrule (1)
42
High Voltage Transmission System:

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Rule:
(1) The standard of the voltage of the in the high voltage transmission system shall be
transmitted as follows:
(a) 33,000 volt
(b) 66,000 volt
(c) 1,32,000 volt
(d) 2,20,000 volt
(e) 4,00,000 volt
(2) The fluctuation shall not be allowed for more than ten
percent in standard volt mentioned in Clauses (a) to (e) of subrule (1)
Rule: 43
Frequency:
(1) The standard of the frequency shall be maintained as 50 cycles per second (50 hertz).
(2) The fluctuation shall not be allowed more than 2.5 percent in the frequency standard as
mentioned in subrule (1)

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Rule:

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Rule:
43
Power Factor:
The standard of the power factor shall have to be maintained as follow:
(a) The level of power factor of the electricity supplied to the consumer shall not be
allowed not less than 0.8 lagging and not more than one unit leadings.
(b) The condensers or any other appropriate equipment shall be managed for maintaining
the standard of power factor in electric transmission and distribution system pursuant to
clause (a).
(c) The licensee may cause the consumer to install appropriate condenser if the consumer's
electricity related power factor is not at the level mentioned in clause (a).

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Q. What is the heating effect of electric current. Derive the expression of heat
produced when electric current flows through a wire.
Answer:
▪ When an electric charge Q moves against a p.d. V, the amount of work done is given by,
W=Q×V ------------(1)
We know,
Charge, Q=I×t ------------(2)
▪ By ohm's law,
V=I×R ------------(3)
▪ Putting eqs. (2) and (3) in eq. (1),

W=𝐼2𝑅𝑡
W=I×t×I×R

produced , H=𝐼2𝑅𝑡 Joules

▪ Assuming that all the electrical work done is converted into heat energy , we get Heat

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▪ This relation is known as Joule's law of heating.

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