es of line supports 2? (R.GPY, June 2M) Ans. The line supporting structures for overhead line conductors al ’ various types such as poles and towers. The line supports are used fo, transmission and distribution of electric power. : Generally, the line support should have the following characteristics (i) High mechanical strength to withstand the weight Of conducts; and wind load, etc. (ii) Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength, (iii) Cheap in cost and economical to maintain. (iv) Longer life. (v) Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance. Following types of towers are used for line supports — j (i) Wooden poles (ii) R.C.C. or P.C.C. poles (iii) Steel poles (iv) Steel towers or structures. (i) Wooden Poles — Poles made of chemically treated wood are used for distribution lines especially in rural areas for low cost electrification. The use of such poles as line supports is limited to low voltage and are generally used What are the various typ Te of T the Poles (a) (b) Fig. 4.4 Wood Pole Constructionoo (Shivani-2023) Insulator & Mechanical Design 197 for distribution purposes. Wood fy insulating property and therefore le likely to take place due to disadvantage of, ‘such pol tend to rot, hence their life j as got a natural ‘er Nash over are lightning. The main are that they are elastic and A s short. (See fig. 4.4) (i) Reinforced Concrete Poles otion cost is increased but their maintenance cost is quite low, also they are mechanically very strong and hence they have longer life. (See fig, 4.5) , (ili) Steel Poles ~ These poles are made up of steel in three types, namely tubular poles, rail poles and rolled steel joists. The tubular pole has round cross. section, the rail pole (used for railways) and rolled Fig. 4.5 R.C.C. Pole Steel joist has I-cross-section shape. These poles has greater mechanical strength with longer span. Steel rail poles are available in 11 m to 13 m height used for transmission purposes. Gy) Steel Towers — Lines of 66 kV and above are invariably supported on steel towers. They are made from painted or galvanised angle section which can be transposed separately and erection done on site. They can withstand very severe weather conditions because they have greater mechanical strength. The risk of interrupted service due to broken or punctured insulation is considerably reduced owing to longer spans. Tower footings are usually grounded by driving rods into the earth. This minimize the lighting troubles as each tower acts as a lighting conductor. Fig. 4.6 shows a few types of steel towers. Tower of many shapes and sizes are used for different types of lines. ( les On (@) Narrow Base for (6) Broad Base for 66 33 kV Single He Double Circuit A132 kVOr Write short note on different types of insulators used for overhead lines. (R.GRY., June 2022) Ans. There are mainly four types of insulator used for overhead transmission lines (Pin type insulators (ii) Suspension type insulators (ii) Strain type insulators (iv) Shackle insulators @_ Pin Type Insulator — Fig. 4.19 illustrates pin type insulator. It has a single or multiple shells (Petticoats) adapted to be mounted on a spindle to be fixed to the cross arms of the supporting structure. There is a groove on the upper Galvanised Steel Pin Fig. 4.19 Pin Type Insulator ‘The insulator and its pin should be sufficiently mechanically strong.to withsta the resultant force due to combined effect of the weight of the conductor, wi pressure and ice loading. It is very cheaper. It requires shorter pole ‘The pin type insulators are normally used upto 33 kV. For the transmissio and distribution of electric power above 33 kV, pin type insulators become ty heavy/bulky and hence uneconomical (Gi Suspension Type Insulator ~The cost of pin type insulators increas rapidly as the working voltage increased. Thus, for the voltage ratings above 3; KV, suspension type insulators are used. Suspension type insulators consist of ‘number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of. string, as shown in fig. 4.20. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end o this string while the other end of the string is secured to the cross- arm of the tower. Each disc is ; designed for low voltage ie., 11 kV. ‘The number of disesin series would ‘obviously depend upon the working i voltage. If the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string Suspension type insulators are of | three types namely cemented cape ine type, interlinking or Hewlett type icestector and core/link type insulators. Fig. 4.20 Suspension Type Insulator Suspension type insulator has the following merits — (a) These are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltage beyond 33 kV. (b) Each insulator is designed for 11 kV and hence for a operating voltage a string of insulators can be used. (c) Ifany one disc is damaged, the whole string does not usele4 because the damaged disc can be replaced by the healthy disc (d) The suspension arrangement provides greater Hlexibili Insulator b the line. (e) In case the line is to operate on a higher voltae in fate“ cape with the increasing load, additional units would be introduced to the") string.; (ii) Strain Type Insulator — \n order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used. These are designed for handling mechanical stresses at angle positions where there is a change in the direction of the line. he pe voltages below ll kv, shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. gh voltage lines having longer spans and greater mechanical loading, suspension insulator strin i i itio WI gS are arranged in a horizontal position, as the fig. 421, ig ition, as shown in Strain Shackle Conductor Insulator Pole Fig. 4.21 Strain Insulator Fig. 4.22 Shackle Insulator (iv) Shackle Insulator — The shackle insulators are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such type of insulators are used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. The shackle insulators can be N\titectly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm, as shown in fig The merit is that its surface can be easily cleaned and it will not cra bjected to temperature changes. The demerit is that its operating vol nly 1000 V. It’s wetflashover and any flashover voltages are 10 kV and 25 7 tly and its puncture voltage is about 35 kV.Tenet: Discuss the radial system and ring main system with their y, “vantages and disadvantages. (RGR, June 2002, Dec. 2002) syste At® @ Radial System ~ I the distebutor is connected to the supply Wy) Bakemenoncendonlythesystemisretered tacky tyaymue 88 a radial system of distribution. Fig. 5.12 * ‘shows a single line diagram of a radial system fos for D.C. ditibution. The tail system fs employed only when power is genrated a | Iw voltage andthe station fe Tocted at he cone rhe lad 4 Advantages ~ It is advantageous for feeder supplying power to heavy indus ond near the secondary sub-station, isolated loads like Feeder | tube wells, area of low load density (villages). Fig. 5.12 Single Line itis most economical, simplest and most Diagram of Rada Sytem commonly use Mor DC. Disbuion sadvantags It has following diadvantages | (@) The endo the distributor nearest tothe feeding point willbe eal oaded (@) Te consumer re dependent on a sinl eeder and single disibuoe. Therefore, any fault on the fede rdsu cut supply the tmasumers, who are onthe sie ofthe fault away rom he substan (6) The consuners lhe dant end of te dsrbutor would be sbjectedtoserous volge ications when head onthe disbuon changes ‘ui to thee reasons this system used for sho ditncs only (i) Ring Main System ~ Fi, 513 shows schema ot ing inn system for the ALC distbution. A Dart FE ans tga system employs ‘feeder Which covers the sfolearea of suply and fly return tothe sb p= aon: Abstain sup- [Sat Dies tote closed feeder shown by LMNOPQRS. The distributors “are ‘ped from different eine diagram Pints M, O and Q of the Duta feeder through dist Sion transformers. Fig: $:13-Line Diagram of Ring Mein Sem Advantages ~ It has following advantages (a) It offers greater reliability of the supply due to less voltage fluctuations at the consumers terminals. (b) Inthe event of a fault on any section of the feeder, the supply toall the consumers can continue tobe available by isolating the faulty section, Disadvantages — It has following disadvantages ~ (a) The end of the distributer which is nearest to the supply end would be heavily loaded. (b) The consumers are located at farthest end then it would be subjected to serious voltage fluctuations with the variation in load, (©) The consumers are depend on single distributer if any fal ‘occurs then cutoff the supply for all consumersGive the name of main equipment required for a substation. (R.GPK, Dee. 2014) Ans. The main equipments in substations are given below ~ @ Transformers—In dstibution substations, transformers step down the primary voltage to lower values appropriate for distribution purpose. Three phase oil cooled transformers attached in delta/star are employed. Three winding transformers are sometimes employed so that a different supply voltage can be obtained from tertiary. The transformers are normally fited with on load tap changing gear capable of changing the voltage from 110% to 90% of nominal value. (i) Bus Bars ~ The incoming and outgoing cireuits are attached to bus bars. These can be either rigid aluminium tubular bus bars supported on post insulators or flexible ACSR stranded conductor bus bars supported from two ends by strain insulators. a (iy Circuit Breakers ~ I's employed to make oF break a cng , during normal and sbnormal conditions. During abnormal conditions, creat tear bast ty ype, tacuim ype, minimum ol pean ae ee (iv) Current Transformers (CTs) — It is used to minimize magnitude for the purpose of measurement, control and protection round core of magnetic material that passes through a bus bar. Se winding is connected to meters (ammeter, wattmeter et.) and for come purpose. When secondary winding is let open, very high voltage develop, that can damage the insulation of CT. (©) Voltage or Potential Transformer (PTS) ~ Its used 10 step down the system voltage toa low value for metering and relaying. It can bean iron core type or capacitive voltage transformer (CVT), the CVT being more commonly employed, (vi Surge Arresters (Lightning Arresters) ~ Surge artesters protect the substation equipment from lightning and switching surges, Now-a-days, power systems invariably use valve type arresters. (i Shunt Capacitors ~ Shunt capacitors supply the reactive power to the loads and therefore help in improving the power factor. They ae switched on during peak load condition and switched off during opposite peak conditions Shunt capacitor banks are atached in star or deta across the tertiary winding of the transformer. (ili) Station Earthing System — Station earthing system is used to provide a low resistance path for flow of earth faults currents (for proper ‘operation of protection device) and safety of equipment and personnel. (ix) Isolating Switches (Isolators) — Whenever maintenance or tepait Work is to be carried out on an equipment in a substation, it i disconnected from the supply by the isolator. They are generally operated on no load: ‘Normally, isolators are interlocked with circuit breakers and earthing switche (x) Protective Relays ~ Relays are used to protect substation ‘equipments against faults such as over current, earth fault, over voltage & (xi) Earthing Switch — After opening circuit breaker and iso earthing. is closed to discharge voltage to ground. This is done bel maintenance is to be carried out on lines, (xii) Station Battery and Charging Equipment ~ For prowctt {and control purposes, a substation requires D.C. supply. This supply isob1te® from batteries. 110 V D.C. supply is employed for medium size substations whereas 240 V supply is employed for large substations. The batteries current thas a -condary