wi SLT 102 i ORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE ) General safety rules and regulations in the workshop with emphasis on the following elements @) Workers ki ©) Working tools ©) Machines and working environment (2) Introduction to simple woodwork practice, woodwork tools and equipment, types and uses. e Wood seasoning and application in the laboratory. (4) Introduction to simple metal work practice, metal work tools and equipment, (8) Metals in use in engineering industry ferrous and non- ferrous castings. Mode of production and basic applications. (6) Bench work Practice-cutting, chipping, filing and use of taps and dies. @) Bench drilling machine parts, operations and users. (8) Students lathe machines parts, operations and users. (9) Arc and gas welding process, scope of practical work. What is Workshop? Workshop is a room or a building in which things are made or repaired using tools or machinery. Workshop can be small or large depending on the type of activity that will be carried out. Technology: Is the systematic use of organized knowledge to solve human practical problems. It is an ability to make materials like tools or the application of scientific knowledge with the main aim of developing products. Science: Is a systematic or ordered way of reasoning. Science is everything that makes life more comfortable to man. E.g refrigerator, computer. Science is regarded as intellectual activity through which man seeks to understand the nature. £ Science: Is an organised body of knowledge in form of concepts, laws and theories. a Concepts: Is a body of knowledge and the process of acquiring and refiring the knowledge. The emphasis is placed upon ideas, principles, theories, symbols and understanding of natural objects and phenomenon. Science and technology are interdependent and overlapping. Each has contributed to the development of the other. Both science andtechnology are jointly res) has achieved so far. Laboratory: A room or a buil experiments, testing e.t.c, Apparatus: The tools o: for sponsible for the material progress man iIiding used for scientific research, x other pieces of equipment that are needed * @ particular activity or task. Laboratory apparatus e.g microscope, beaker, funnel, Bunsen burner. E.t.c. ‘ools: An instrument that you hold in your hand and used for making or repairing things e.g hammer. Equipment: Things that are needed ina €.g tools, machines etc, Machine: A piece of equipment with moving parts that is designed to do a particular job. The power used to work a machine may be electricity, stream, gas or human power. Environment: The conditions that affect the behaviour and development of something. The physical conditions that exists in a pleasant working and learning environment. Safety: According to Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary is the state of being safe and protected from danger or harm. Safety is a term used when planned measures or precautions are taken to control situations and acts in an endeavour to prevent: (@__ Injury to the person concerned (©) Injury to others (©) Damage to the workshop, its equipment and materials. Personal Safety Habits to the Worker (1) Remove loose fitting outer garments. (2) Roll up long sleeve shirts above elbow. (3) Wear protective clothing a close fitting apron tied at the back. (4) Keep long hair out of the eyes and moving machine parts- wear a cap or beret. (8) Wear shoes with strong toe cap. Some Safety Working Conditions (1) Adequate ventilation and lighting (2) Safe storage of tools and materials (3) Proper guarding of moving parts of machines (4) First aid equipment (8) Fire protection Safe Working Techniques Required a Sound Knowledge of:- 1. The right way to do the job. 2. — Using the right tools for the job. 3. The correct use of tools and machines particular task or activity 2The limitations of the tool or machine - this is important when using portable machine tools. Above all, these rules have little value unless each individual or pupil in the workshop understands why or where an accident could occur if the precautions are not followed. Working Tools Safety Hand tools do not usually cause accident if in good working order or condition, used correctly, carried carefully and stored safely. 1. Store tools in the kit or correct places after use. 2, Do not carry sharp edge or pointed tools in apron pockets. 3. When passing edge or pointed tools to a fellow student pass them handle first. 4. Donot carry many tools at once. Machine and Working Environment Exposure to high level of noise produced by machines can induce deafness which is irreversible - operators etc should wear ear plugs or ear muffs. Machine tools and portable power tool accidents are generally caused by: 1. Electrical faults 2. Mechanical faults 3. Careless or incorrect working techniques - Machine Safety: Before an operator operate a machine:. 1. He should be able to know how to operate the machine. 2. Observe correct workshop clothing rules 8. | Make sure there is adequate working space to operate the machine safely. 4. | Remove scraps from around the machine and the floor. 5. Do not talk to or distract the attention of the machine operator. 6. Only the operator using the machine should operate the switches and controls. Electrical Equipment Safety: - Installation of electrical machines is carried out by trained electricians, power points or outlets, switches, etc being properly earthed. Most portable power tools and small bench machines are connected to power outlets by 3-core (three insulated current carrying conductors) flexible leads and three pin plugs. The red (brown) covered wire is the “Live” or “active” conductor and should be connected to “L” “+” terminal of the plug; the black (blue) is the “neutral” conductor and is connected to the “N” “-” 3terminal and most important the green (yellow-green stripped) earth conductor is connected to the terminal marked “Earth” or “E", Alternative colour marking or coding are shown in brackets. When flexible leads or cables are used for machines or appliances, take the following safety precautions. a oper Check the plugs frequently for fractures and to see that the leads are securely fixed to the terminals. Don’t use cracked or faulty plugs’ Store power tools and leads in a dry place when not in use. Switch off and disconnect leads after use. Report any damaged leads, plugs or switches to your teacher. Mechanical Faults- Safety First Mechanical faults, which can be dangerous, are usually the result of- ee Poor machine maintenance and lubrication Worn or damaged machine parts Overloading the machine Using the wrong cutting tools Using blunt or damaged cutting tool. Before using a machine, check the following ne Pp Soe ll. 0. Gi) (i) Paring and shaving cutting tools See that machine parts, such as guards, belts, fences, tools rests, cutting tools (saw blades, drills) ete are serviceable and properly fitted. Don't use a machine with faulty parts. See that the machine is properly oiled and moving parts can move freely. Don’t overload the machine and force it to do work beyond its capacity. Use the correct cutting tools for the job. Don’t use damaged or blunt cutting tools. Make sure you know how to use the machine Have the machine checked for set up before switching on. Report any mechanical faults. Report any conditions which could cause damage to the machine or injury to the operator. Wood Working Tools: Are divided into groups: Holding and supporting tools Geometric tools 4(@) Holding and Supporting Tools: © @) Abrading and scraping cutting tools W) Grinding and holding tools (vi) Boring cutting tools (vii) Percussion and impelling tools ‘omprises of those tools used to hold the job while working on it. (a) The Bench and its Appliances: The bench is used for supporting the job while setting out and during the various operations necessary for its construction. The Contre or “well” of the top is usually a little low than the sides to accommodate the tools. - The Vice: Made of wood or metal possess a release lever which allows quick movement and instantaneous grip, used toheld the job while planning, sawing, chiselling out waste. - The Bench Stop: Many varieties some made of wood and some of metal. The usual type is the wooden bench stop which fits through a mortise in the left hand and of the bench being held in position by means of a bolt and a thumb screw through the leg of the bench. Used to prevent the work from slipping while planning the face. _ The Bench Hook: or Cutting Board: Use to hold the job while sawing or chiselling at the same time protecting the bench. _ G.Cramp: A large cramp used for holding the job to the pench while sawing or chiselling can be pought in several different sizes according to the opening of the jaws. Sash Cramp: A large cramp used for holding and drawing up the parts of jobs together while gluing. They are also in different sizes. - The Brace: Can also be classified under impelling tools. Uses to hold and give leverage in a continuous motion to the various bits. Parts-head a lock of hard wood shaped to fit the hand. It is screwed to a flanged steel sleeve, which in turn fits over the end of the crank rod and runs on hardened steel balls. - Crank: The crank consists of a rectangular bend in the rod. Varying from 100 - 175mm, thus giving a swetP ‘of 200 - 350mm. the crank is fitted with a hard wood or plastic handles matching the head. - Chuck: The end of the crank is enlarges to about one inch in diameter and is threaded and slothed to receive the socket and jaws respectively. 5Wooden Bench Stop Fig i Wing out « bolt for > Pipl barch oe of required felght WORK BENCH = ouble sided vith metal vices i “Ste Fig. 2 | i BENCH HOOK oR a COTRING BOARD. ~ Hornbeom Fig.3 j ‘6’ Chime Seren Seren ‘S0=3007%m Pee HANDSCREW. 1 ‘50 te 400 rhct JOINERS SASH: CRAMP. Sije 600-2000 long» Opening #501869." | Adjustable Stop - a METAL SHOOT. ie BENCH HOLDFAST AND PLANETHE WOOD WORK BENCH Bortch tools in use are put in the well to keep the top clear the bench stop acts as a stop for the wood when it is being The top should be about 70 mm thick and made fram deal or, better still, @ hardwood such as beech, birch or iroko. planed on the bench tap. The fength should be atleast 2m. i | a The width should be at least 800 mm. ‘The height should be 800 mm. The welll is made of thinner wood and is fower than the working top, The underframe is usually made from dsal or beech timbers about 100 mm wide and 75 mm thick, with plugged bridle joints. A typical workbenchWOODWORK APPLIANCESen A yatchet is a contrivance fitted to the “ratchet race” so that holes can be bored in confined spaces such as canners where it impossible to make a complete turn or sweep of the crank handle. The two pawls controlled by a knurled collar on the end of the crank rod which enables the chuck to be driven in one direction and released when the crank is returned. Pincers: Uses chiefly for extracting nails or tacks which Fae become bunt in driving etc. sizes from 125 - 250mm long. Parts-Arms- made of foged steel Rivet - Connects the two arms and acts as fulcrum. Jaws — made of hardened steel and sharpened to gxip nails etc. Claw — the end of one arm is claw shaped for light levering, lifting tacks etc. When pulling out a nail with pincers, there is a danger of brushing the timber to prevent this, a small piece of wood or fimber should be placed under the jaws to protect the job. @) Geometrical Tools: These tools comprise those used for measuring, marking or setting out and testing the various stages of the work. Some that are commonly used are: Pencil: Used for drawing lines in the setting out the shapes of parts of the job. Folding Rule or Tape: Measuring instrument obtainable in different sizes 3mm, 6mm, 1,5 mietc use for setting out and checking measurements, setting gauges, calipers etc. Straight Edge: Made of steel or wood with perfectly straight parallel edges. Uses for testing the straightness of surfaces or edges. Callipers: There are two types of calipers inside and outside calipers. The inside calipers is used for testing the @iameters of holes, and the outside calliper for testing the outside diameter of cylindrical objects in lathe work turney- Try-Square: For testing the squareness of a material and enabling lines to be marked at right angles to a given surface.Parts — Blade of well tempered steel, secured at right angle to the stock by means of riverts which pass through brass plate on each side of the stock, thus preventing the wooden stock from splitting and marking the blade more secure. Sizes — from 100 - 800mm long Stock — made of steel or wood - Mitre Square: For marking or testing angles of 45° consists the same parts as the try square but the plade is fixed at 45° to the stock. Sizes from 280 - 350mm long. Sliding Bevel: For duplicating angles and setting out and testing bevels and mitres where the line of the joint is other than 46°. the same parts as the try square but the blade is not fixed permanently at any angle it is adjustable to meet the desired angle. A slotted blade passes through a slot in the stock and is held at the required angle by means of a screw or lever. Blade - 150 - 350mm long. Marking Guage: For marking lines parallel to a face or an angle. Uses for gauging width and thickness Parts (a) Stem: made of beech wood passes through the center of the stock. (b) Stock: made of beech and slides along the stem. Spur or pin made of steel, fixed firmly into the end of the stem. (c) Thumb Screw: made of boxwood and is threaded into the stock. Its purpose is to fix the stock at the required distance from the spur. Mortise Guage: To mark two lines parallel to a face or an edge e.g when gauging mortise and tennon, pins and sockets of bridle joint. The same parts as marking guage plus a moveable spur fitted to a sliding brass rod which inturn is moved by a thumb screw at the end of the stem until the two spurs are at the desired distance apart. (iii) Paring and Cutting Tools: Comprises of those tools used to reduce the timber to the required sizes and shapes. A good number of such tools are: - Planes: A plane consists of a piece of sharpened cutting Steel (called the cutting iron) fitted into a wooden or metal stock. It is used for producing plain or shaped smoothTRY. AND MITRE SQUARE 2p bse J position TESTING A TRY SQUARE fan stien MITRE SET OR SQUARE “Bp Sapseas ade Tb oe (Beech or Rasewood) 6° ‘(baxrood) 'Fig.18° WARKING: GAUGE “Adjustin vere = Sliding ‘Bar. Fig. 19° MORTISE . GAUGE ei (Beech or Résenood)- ‘GAUGING A CHAMFER Bee Figs. Fig:20 BUTT GAUGE. 14-9} Fig 2b PENCIL. GAUGE @ sizes made from rebated block)ee Surfaces or edges by taking off thin shavings. Planes may be divided into the following groups: (a) Bench Planes: Used for producing flat or plain surfaces. (b) Curve Cutting Planes: Used for producing curved surfaces and edges, Special Purpose Planes: Used for producing rebates, tongues and grooves and shaped edges such as moulding ete. (d@) Multi Purpose Planes: Can be set up as special purpose planes. - Bench Planes: Are of different types and sizes made of wood or metal. (©) Note: That the metal type is mostly used nowadays. . German Jack or Roughing Plane: Used for taking off the very rough surface and for reducing the timber quickly to the approximate sizes. . Jack Planes: Used to smooth or remove saw marks from “rough” timber or after the German Jack Plane to dress the surfaces and edges when planning to the required sizes. c. Trying Plane or Jointer: Used after the jack plane to produce true flat surfaces and perfectly straight edges. . Smoothing Plane: Used for cleaning up the surfaces and edges of members ready for assembling. Parts of Jack Plane @ Stock made of wood or metal @ Cutting iron (i) Cap iron or back iron (iv) Knob (v) —_ Handle (vi) Adjustment Level (vii) Mouth (viii) Sole (2) Curve Cutting Planes: Are used for producing curved surfaces and edges. Spoke Shaves: Wooden or metal two types (a) Flat Faced used for smoothing flat or convex edges and narrow surfaces. iS (») Round faced for smoothing concave edges.Parts: Stock made of bench wood or metal. Cutting Iron — about 35 — 54mm wide 8) @ Gi) Gi) (Gv) &) @® Cap Iron Thumb Screw Cap Iron Screw Adjustment Screw Special Purpose Planes Rebate Plane: For planning or finishing rebates reb is a rectangular recess cut along the edges or across the end of a piece of timber. Fillister Planes Bull-nose Rebate Plane Plough Plane: Used for ploughing or cutting grooves along the grain of face or edges. A groove is a rectangular recess or channel running along the grain of the timber some distance from the edge or side. Router Plane: Used for surfacing the bottoms of trenching to produce uniform depth. Multi Purpose Planes: Are metal planes which can be set up to carry out a wide range of planning operations, such as rebating, grooving, trenching and moulding. G) @ Ga) Gi) 3,5,6, 8,10,13,16,19,22,25,32,38 and 51mm wide. Ghisels: Are divided into three groups: Firmer Chisels Paring Chisels Mortise Chisels: With cutting edge range in mm All chisels consists of two main parts: The handle made up of a tough timber (usually ash or beech) or plastic and a blade, made up of steel. The blade is secured to the handle by means of a tang on the end of the blade fitting into a hole called Tanged chisels or the blade may be tapered to fit into a tapered hole or socket chisels. Chisels with wooden handles arePARING «& 5 HA Planes used for Producing Bi, VING CUTTING TOOLS AT SURFcES Ste atso Fig. 232 e~Culting ‘ren 8 Cop iron y +, - 6B S 1 aN = 200-250 rtm — | cing ton aw eer, eas eae GERMAN sack on enna ROUGHING PLANE Sipe be, fig.23 | JACK PLANE Double Irons = Xi arr ame gt eel Sep iron set O5~Bdorn Fig.24 TRYING OR JOINTING PLANE fh cilhig ej > flat urtace Double Irons é (Metal) Cutting Iron a ie if 2 Vea | Apres l= bso = ro — 2] ain cutting edge! 5 shraig) 5 Fig. 25 SMOOTHING PLANE fig.26 BLOCK PLANE @ Double trons WOODEN Single tron Tesi ik Pal BENCH PLANES “beusually provided with brass or iron ferrules at one or both ends to prevent the wood from splitting, @ Firmer Chisel: For general chiselling purposes. The blade is rectangular in sections and may be tanged on socket construction. The base of the tang has a shoulder to stop it from being drown too far into the han dle. A brass ferrule Prevents the handle from " splitting. @) Bevelled Edge Chisel: Use more for paring and lighter work generally where they think blade of the bench firmer chisel _. Would prevent the cleaning up of the comers of joints. (Gi) Mortise Chisel; For extra heavy mortising. The blade being thicker and strouger than other chisels and is able to withstand the blow of the mallet. <— @) Gauges: Similar in construction to the chisel but have blades which are curved along their length so that curved cuts can be made. - Pairing Gauge: (Inside ground) used where a curved cut is required in the direction of the axis of the gauge. Firmer Gauge: Ground and sharpened on the outside or convex surface. Use for grooving and general carving purposes, (e Concave Convex (4) Abrading and Scraping Cutting Tools These are tools which cut by taking away small particles at a time in form of dust. (a) Saw: Are made of high carbon steel alloyed with special metals to increase the hardness and toughness. The cut made by a saw is called the “Kerf”, The kerf is wider than the thickness of the blade because the teeth are “set” i.e adjacent teeth are bent slightly outwards to opposite sides to provide clearance. Uses of saws: saws are used for cutting timber to 10Handle (Beech or Ash) Secured Handle sh or Hickory) oe PARING & SHAVING CUTTING TOOLS e: iL Handle ” (Boxwood) ae Shoulder [i ist rs eur] S54" ae , = NIN NS: ba gay hosel pap levsrd || Bench Firmer Bevelled Edge ~ Regislered (Morfise) FIRMER CHISELS Secket Horkise be af sises 3m eee Firmer \ if 1 \ 1 | | \ U Paria GoUsEs 9 CHISELS « GoUuGEs A 8 + Sharpening Bevel for Paring tong thin “blade (Bevelied) Foe Mortising LQinding, Bevel Widih oF cutting ket 1S Size of Said setan Figs. 36-42Chisels and gouges : 1 purpose chieelthatis strongenough Afirmer chisel is a general beech, ash or plastic. to take light mallet blows. .d tempered. The handle is made of box, ‘The blade is made of high carbon steel, hardened.# ‘and sharpened to en angle It is ground to an angle of 20° t0 3k hntor chisel than the firmer and is wat aro less than 90°. It is made of 30°. The bevelled edge chisel is 2 li! 1 blade has bevels on used for cutting into shoulders th in the some way as 2 firmer chisel but the both edges. ol ig used with 2 maliet for cuting slots called i The blade is thicker The mortise chis mortises, 20 for a mocise ed tenon Joint. thet i wl ytnstand the matieting than that on a firmer chisel so thet _and lovetiig that acowonay. The hancle has a fers ot the ‘end to stop splitting of the handle. Thera is ‘also a leather ers her bowwiosn the hatidle and the blade to absorb the shock of the mallet blows i cutting ae Me A Bavalled edge’ chisel ~qa) @ @) (4) (5) @ (ii) (6) | oa sizes and shapes with a minimum amount of waste and effort. Saws may be divided into two groups: (i) Bench Saws or Hand Saws: Those used for straight cutting. (ii) Curve Cutting Saw: Those used for curve cutting. Rip Saw: Distinguishable by the shape of the teeth, which are chisel edges, the front edge being at right angles to the line of the teeth or the back of the blade. There are different lengths ranging from 600 — 700mm with 3 - 6 points per 25mm. Uses for cutting along the grain (ripping) of thick timber. Cross Cut Saw: Has pointed teeth with knife-like edges but smaller than the rip saw. The front edge of the teeth being 70° ~ 80° to the line of the teeth. Length 560 — 700mm with 5 — 9 points per 28mm. used for cutting across the grain of thick timber. Panul Saw: Has pointed knife-like teeth similar to the cross cut saw, but smaller. Length from 450 - 500mm, 11 - 12 points per 25mm. used for sawing thin timber, generally across the grain, e.g panels can be used for ripping tenons for joints. Tenon Saw: Belongs to a group of saws called “back saw” which posses a brass or steel sliffening rib folded over the back of the thin blade to prevent it from buckling. The teeth are sharpened for cross cutting. The handle is of a closed type and is shaped so that the saw is easy to use in a horizontal position on the bench. Length of blade 200 — 450mm with 12 — 14 points per 25mm. Dovetail Saw: Similar to the tenon saw, but it is smaller and usually has an open handle. Length 200 - 250mm. 18 — 22 points per 25mm. use for a very fine and accurate joint cutting and light sawing only. Curve Cutting Saw: These saws have narrow blades to enable them to turn in the saw cut or kerf when sawing curves. Bow Saw: Has a 6.0mm wide blade, average length 300mm, held in a wooden frame made up of bench. Tension is applied to the blade by means of a length of cord and a winding lever, or an iron rod and thumb screw. Uses for extensively used for external curve cutting in fairly thick timer. Grinding and Honing Tools: Grinding tools are abrasive wheels used mainly for removing quickly the barrels, gapped or worn edges of plain irons, chisels and gauges to form a new grinding level.“ee ue cou Ne Closed Henle Fig. 46 RIPSANy TEETH Eon ——>1 Applewood) Fig.45 HAND saws RIP. EO ecoes ~ Length 600-709 3-4 Poinks Per inch= 25mm Z -- Length 350-709 5- 5 APA ARAW terre 2 Paints per inch» = 12 Points per itch ~ + fig. AZ. CROSSCUT SAW TEETH Giosed Pa ee Hovde Pendle he ENG m ‘beeth) wh . Saou" 200450 for oy a ES 250 | Se = [2-14 Points per 18.22 Pinks per inch Fig. 48 TENON Sy 24°32 Points per inch ih DOVETAIL SAW Fig9.50 LIGHT BACK SAW BACK SA et 8r953.0r Iron Back or stiffening rib) Stee! frme Handle clever b-siser60| fig.55 COPING SAW Sa fe tength 250-350 —>| fig.57 COMPASS SAW Handle? Open Handle fig.58 KEYHOLE ox PAD SAW (Beech) a ae oe "8 Tophod of Ss i lng: Blade450 holding Bow Saw OE SEE) SSS eS ‘Compass Blade toa long =e Keyhole Blade 250 long Fig.59 NEST OF SANS CURVE CUTTING ~ SAWS Figs. 45-59 i@ @ J ding Tools are m: ade up of Two Kings: Grindstone: Are quarried natural s Sand or grit naturally cemented together). When the guindstone is used water to wet the stone to reduce heat caused by friction while grinding which would quickly Tuin the cutting edge of the tool by softening the steel, It washes away the particles of stone and steel librated while grinding thus enabling the stone to cut freely. Composition Abrasive Wheels: Are artificial stones ie handmade stones, common types being made from emery. Emery is a very hard, black or greyish variety of aluminium oxide found in rock form crushed into various sizes or grifts, mixed together with a suitable bond, moulded and baked at a high temperature to complete the bond. Aluminium Oxide: Is made by fusing banxite in an electric furnace and then crushing the material into abrasive grifts which are then formed into grinding wheels. andstones (particles of Honing or Sharpening Tools: Are abrasive stones, called oilstones used for putting keen edges of cutting tool which have become dull during use. Honing is always necessary after grinding. @ @) cn} Natural Stones: are quarried (mostly U.S.A) the two best natural stones are the “Washita” and the “Arkarsas”. They are obtainable in two grades hard and soft. The hard being used for honing surgical instruments and wood carving tools where extreme sharpness is required. Artificial Stones: Are manufactured from artificial abrasive Silicon Carbide and Aluminium Oxide by bonding the crushed and graded particle together to mark stones of any desired shape with uniform texture (fine, medium. coarse). Files and Rasps: Are used in wood work for smoothing edges and shapes which cannot be worked easily with other kinds of cutting tools. Files have teeth produced by a series of chisel cuts, (single or double rows) across the face, giving various grades of teeth, fine to coarse.SS ee ) Common Shapes: Square for filing small holes and slots, flat for flat and convex edges, Half ound for smoothing nd enlarging holes, sharp concave cw Ss. Round for filling irves and enlarging ard saws, can be us corners and grooves, @) Rasps: Are usually half ~ round in section, the teeth being formed by a punch which raises triangular points or teeth on the metal, May have rough or smooth teeth. The rasp is @ Tough surface which needs to be finished with files and glass papers, @) Glass: Crush glass is Various grades of particles or guits and then glued with animal glue to a stiff backing, ®) Flint: Crushea Quartz a natural mineral rock. Some treatment as glass, (©) Garnet: A red semi sanding, (@) Aluminium Oxide: A brown artificial mineral abrasive widely used for high speed machine sanding and much Superior to garnet, (©) Silicon Carbide: & blue. black artificial abrasive used for wood or metal sSmoothin g. The Gi) Dowel Bit: A Shot shankel twist bit sizes to suit diameters of dowelling, NS cutting action similar to the soft Gv) Expansion Bit: g; Centre bit. Has a, Spurs for holes wy bits as regards shape, but wood twist bit, imilar in shape and cutting action to the dvantage of having an adjustable cutter and P to 75mm diameter, 13(vi) Countersinks; Two Partners, snail and rose having a cone- shaped cutting point which enlarges the top of holes for countersink head screws, (vii)Gimlet: 4. boring tool similar toa nail. bit having a small cross handle fitted to it for hay nd boring of holes for nails and screws where a brace cannot be used, (2) Percussion and Impelling Tools: Precussion e.g instruments vy hitting them with your hands or a stick eg musical instrument, Impelling instrument or tools you can applied force to do worl @ Hammers: Has a force or hickory wood or a Gi) 3 5 ; P (iv) Nail Puncher; : sound or Square Points, round being most generally used, the Point should be concave, Use with hammer for driving nails below the Surface of the wood, Screw Drivers: Consists of alloy steel bla Square. One end fi 1S ground to parallel sia, (v) de flat, round or es to forma tip to shaped to a tang to ood, shatter-proofHandle Ash or Hickory) Waa SHaim Wide dor + Cabinet Pattern Pattern Fig. 90 Fig. 90? Fig. 1 Fig. 93 Fig, 92 WARRINGTON CLaw CARPENTERS — NajL SCREWDRIVERS HAMMER HAMMER “MALLET PUNCH ee eepatterns. Sizes of Screwdrivers are determined by the length of the blade from the tip to the handle. @ be Ate made up of high Carbon steel, hardened an tempered. One end is ground to a sharp point for making lines on the metal, (6) Callipers: Have two legs with a scriber point at the end of the legs and joined together at the head with a rivet pin. The main use is to mark lines parallel to an edge. Callipers __ axe of two types, outside callipers and inside calipers. @) Outside Callipers: Are used for checking outside diameters of a pipe. Two types can be bought one with a Tiveted joint at the top of the arms and the other fitted with a spring and fine adjusting screw. Gi) Inside Callipers: Are used to checking the size of holes or bores or for checking whether or not the bores are round, for example, the bore of a petrol engine. (ii) Dividers: Have two legs both sharpened to points. They are used to mark surfaces with curves. They can be used to copy length, stepping off distances, (iv) The Engineer’s Protractor: Has a body with degrees marked on it and an arm that can be swivelled and locked at an angle to it. It is used to mark out and check angles other than 90°. Adjustable Bevels or Sliding Bevels: Have a blade set in a stock. The blade can slide in the stock and can be locked to it at any angle. They are used to mark out or check any size of angle. @ Hand Cutting and Shaping Tools Files: Are made up of high Carbon steel, hardened and tempered. Only the blade is heat treated the tang is left soft to give it more strength. The length of a file is measured from the shoulder to the tip. The lengths vary according to the type of file from 100mm — 450mm, files are used for general purposes. They have teeth on both faces and both edges. Hand Files: Are parallel, they have cut on both faces and one edges. The other edge is on cut. This is useful when filling up to a shoulder. Warding Files: Are thin and taper towards the tip. They are used for cutting narrow slets and keyways. 15Square Files: Are Square in section and used for cutting slets and square holes, Triangular Files: Are Made in the shape of a triangle and used for filling angles which are less than 90°, Round Files: Are round in section and are used for cutting curves and round holes, Half Round Files: Are flat on one surface and curves on the other. They are used for filing curved and flat surfaces. Knife Files: Are wedge- shaped and used for filing awkward comers and angles. Rasps: Are cut with single teeth and used for soft materials such as wood and leather. Holding Tools: Are tools that holds piece of iron or steel while working on it. Engineer’s Vice: The body is made up of cast iron. The jaws are Separate, made up of high Carbon steel, and screwed to the body. The screw has a square thread except for the quick release vices tress thread. The vices are made the size being th in range of sizes, fe width of the jaws, In use they ar the bench, e belted firmly to Machine Vice: This vice is use forms of machinery. Hand Vices: Are also made in different sizes and shapes. The Tancashie pattern will cive a parallel gris ; Hand vices are held in the hand te riveting,made of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered. Only the blade is heat treated, the tang is left soft to give it more ate Strength. The length of a file is measured from the shoulder to the tip. Lengths vary according to the type of file, from 100 mm 40 450 mm. Work is clamped firty, a section section square fle round fle +S Sa nito te boing 0 teSeasoning of Timber More than half the Weight of Many freshh moisture or 'Y Cut timbers consists of x Sap. Before the timber can be used, a large part of the Moisture must be Temoved, inevi i i trol the rate and inevitable during drying, efforts are made to cont degree of seasoning to ensure that all the shrinkage has taken place without undue distortion and splitting before the timber is in actual use. Advantages of Seasoned Timber @ ‘Further shrinkage, checking and distortion (warping) are duced to a minimum. : ii) Consitons are less favourable for decay and insect attack. eS Most strength properties are improved with drying. 4 es Dry surfaces will take paints, finishes and adhesives better. , js (v) Penetration of preservatives is improved. (vi) Corrosion of ferrous met. Is i.e nails, Screws, balts etc is reduced. ‘Types of Seasoning There are two distinct or kinds of seasoning; @_ Natural or Air Methoa Gi) Artificial or Kiln Methoa (Accelerated) (@) Natural Seasoning: In this Method, the timber is stacked in the open air, where it is dried by the prevailing weather conditions, The temperature, the humidity of the air and the gheed of air circulation govern the laid on bearers to iyWolerlight overhanging 70h Tied to special co © gebmeen shocks ee Fig. 299. oles eS TIMBER IsTACKED a Gee ee stipspunme FOR AIR berg etait area Sega ee tt 5EASONING Gio vertical a Pues above me Poing. ond 970109 ic Be Gpoces befuten B08 {25 fo 9 wi COMPARTMENT KILNS Heating | coils Fig, 301 Forced Cireylebion E18 Seen ran (End Section) PEELE} Longitudinal Section - Forced Circulation Fig 302 PROGRESSIVE KILN TWO METHODS OF ACCELERATED” SEASONING Fin-300 nutyre cretion (End Section) outeh dir tole ‘ Figs 299-302 SEASONING OF TIMBER * aa PLATE 67.uniform in drying. The moisture content of air dried timber is 15-20%. dvantages of Kir Season Q) Itis cheap and Proper control is not required, (i) More timbers can be put under seasoning. (ii) Large or small area can be required depending on the quantity of timbers to be seasoned. Disadvantages of Air Season Q) The timber takes longer time to dry. Gi) Drying rate depends on the weather. iii) The timbers are liable to be infested. (iv) The required moisture content can not be obtained. Accelerated or Kiln Seasoning : The timber is stacked as for air drying and placed in special drying rooms or ovens called “Kilns” where the temperature, humidity and air circulation can be carefully controlled, either manually or automatically from outside the kiln, Care must be taken to see that the drying process while removing the free water is not rapid to prevent the timber form damage. Rdvantages of Kiln Seasoning @ Kiln drying permits drying to the exact M.c required which may be much lower than that of air dried timber. (i) The carefully controlled conditions can minimize damage Seasoning defects which occurs while drying. Git) The heating of the timber while in Kiln drying kills the e998, larvae and adult borers which may be present in the wood, but does not prevent reforestation later, Gy) Although capital coats may be higher, greater turnover is possible by reductions in drying time, yard storage space is required, ‘Two types of Wood and less timber @ Hard wood are the type of timber with broad leaves and bears covered seed. By nature they are stronger or harder than the softwood.fi) Softwood is the type of timber with needle-like leaves and bears naked seed. They are softer than the hardwood because they contain sap (the living cells). Metal use in Engineering Industry: Cast Iron: Is made by heating pig iron, scrap Iron and steel together with coke and limestone in a sm: all furnace called a cupola until the iron is melted. The molten metal is poured into moulds. When the iron cools it become solid once more. This Process is known as casting. Steel: Is made by taking out the impurities from Pig iron and then adding Carbon. Most steel today is made by one of four methods: Ferrous Metal and Non-ferrous Metals Ferrous metals contain iron: non-ferrous metals do not contain iron. Ferrous metals ©. cast iron which contains a mixture of Carbon and iron Carbon content, Non-ferrous metals e.g Aluminium, not contain iron, » Lead, Alloys: An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. ee mixed ‘fogether, the resultin, Properties and qualities from When metals the ig alloy will have different original metals, Ferrous Alloys: A composition of iron, Cabon, Vanadium, Non-ferrous Alloys: Composition ©.g Copper, Zinc, Are and Welding Processe of two or more : ding which involved the use of . ae ma tight closed cylinder with Po tS Oxygen: ta mized (atten Scobsinne: deL Adjusting teeth height adjustment A bench dri rive belts 89/ The sbeed’ot fatation of the drill bit can be ‘adjusted, for in general the larger the hole to be'dr the speed. : ,,the slower should be Safety procedures to be followed whi ; en operating the drill press are: always use the safety guard; always securely claitip the work to be drilled; Wear goggles when dtilling. A drill press The wood lathe is a machine for shaping pieces of wood by 4 turning. The lathe holds the work securely and rotates it at 4 @ Suitable speed. Cutting tools can then be applied to the work : to produce the desired shape. OnesPe oduces, lighteq heat Which nozzle, The ]j can be Tegulateg through the welding ighted heat Produced is Used to welq the two Pieces of metals together, Welding flux can be used to complement the Process by adding Strength to the welded part, Bench Drilling Machine: Drilling ™achines are Of different types: (a) Pedestal Drilling Machine &) Bench Mounted Drilling Machine © Portable Electric Drilling Machine. Drilling Machine is a useful machine which can Perform man; 9perations, As well as drilling holes, it can be adapted for Mottising, routing, shaping ang Sanding. The Speed of drilling Machine can be adjusted to Suit the Material to drill. Safety Procedures to be followeq when °Perating the drilling Machine are: @ Always use the safety guard. ii) Always securely clamp the Work to be drilled, Gil) Wear goggles when drilling. Parts of Drilling Machine (@) Head which bears the Pulleys, belts, the Cover, m™ounted Collar with, chuck, feeder lever, 0b) ‘The stang which carry the head. © The base Which makes the machine to stand firmly on the floor, (@) The table which holds the Job while drilling, Some drilling machines ar, their“parts: Head Stock: Bed, tool Stock, tool rest, tail stock, hand wheel etc. Centre Lathe: Just like the wo od lathe is several Machines tools in existence which can make many numerous tasks much simpler, The centre lathe can turn both wood and iron, Parts: The headstock is the large end of the lathe is fed. It contains a t plied to the work 3 ce the cutting tool along the length Paralle] turning. Moving the tool of the job is called facing tur; = eas different diameters on the s. i turing, alMachine tools pueteeen) woodwork, there are several machine. tools in xistence Which can make many onerous tasks much simpler, The most useful and verSatile machine for metalworking is the centre lathe. Headstock tailstock spindie. carriage fathe ee metalworking centre te =