Representation of Data and Its Flow: Full-Duplex Mode:

In full-duplex communication, data flows simultaneously in both directions.Both sender and receiver can transmit
Data representation refers to how information is stored, processed, and transmitted in computers, and it can take
and receive data at the same time without any waiting.This mode offers higher efficiency and better performance in
various forms like text, numbers, images, audio, and video. The movement of this data between devices is called data
communication systems.
flow, and it occurs through different transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.
Example: Telephone calls, where both parties can talk and listen at the same time.
DATA REPRESENTATION:
Importance of Data Representation and Flow
Data is the basic unit of information in computing and communication systems.It is any piece of information that can
• Accurate data representation ensures correct interpretation and processing by machines.
be stored, processed, or transmitted by a digital system.Data can exist in various forms such as numbers, text,
images, audio, and video.Computers convert all types of data into binary format (0s and 1s) for internal • Efficient data flow improves communication speed, reliability, and synchronization between devices.
operations.The way data is represented affects how efficiently it can be stored, accessed, and transmitted.
• Choice of transmission mode affects the performance and cost of communication systems.
Proper data representation ensures accuracy, speed, and reliability in digital communications.
Understanding the nature of data is fundamental to designing effective software, databases, and networks.

It can be represented in several formats depending on its nature and purpose: NETWORKS:
• Text: Representation of characters, letters, and symbols. Text is usually encoded using standards like ASCII or A computer network is a system of two or more connected devices that communicate and share resources with each
Unicode. other. These devices can be computers, printers, servers, or other network-enabled devices. Networks can be small,
like a Local Area Network (LAN) within a home or office, or large, like a Wide Area Network (WAN) connecting
• Numbers: Numerical data can be represented in different formats such as integers, floating-point numbers,
multiple LANs across a wide geographical area, or even the Internet. Networks allow devices to exchange data, access
binary, octal, hexadecimal, and so on.
shared files, use common applications, and utilize hardware resources like printers.
• Images: Visual information represented as a collection of pixels, where each pixel has a color value. Common Depending on their size and purpose, networks can range from small personal networks to massive global systems
image formats include JPEG, PNG, BMP. like the Internet.

• Audio: Sound information is represented by sampling analog audio signals into digital format, commonly Key Concepts
stored as MP3, WAV, etc.
Nodes:
• Video: A sequence of images (frames) with accompanying audio, encoded using formats like MP4, AVI, MOV. Nodes are the individual devices connected to a network, capable of sending, receiving, or forwarding information.
Common nodes include desktops, laptops, smartphones, servers, and networked printers.
These representations are converted into binary (0s and 1s) for processing, storage, and transmission across digital
systems. Links:
Links are the physical or logical pathways that connect nodes.
Flow of Data
They can be wired, such as Ethernet cables, fiber optics, or coaxial cables, or wireless, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or
The movement of data between devices or systems is called the data flow.It describes how information travels from a cellular networks.
source to a destination through communication channels.Data flow is essential for enabling interaction between
Protocols:
different parts of a computer system or network.It can occur internally within a computer (e.g., CPU to memory) or
Protocols are standardized sets of rules that define how data is formatted, transmitted, and received across the
externally between computers over networks.The efficiency of data flow affects system performance, communication
network.
speed, and user experience.Protocols and transmission modes control how data flows to ensure reliability, accuracy,
Examples include TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), and
and security.Proper management of data flow is critical in areas like networking, cloud computing, and real-time
FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
systems.
Networking Devices:
It follows different transmission modes depending on communication requirements:
Networking devices manage the communication and data transfer between nodes.
Simplex Mode: Common devices include:
In simplex communication, data flows in only one direction.
• Router: Connects different networks together and directs data packets.
The sender can only send data, and the receiver can only receive data without the ability to reply.
This mode is suitable for situations where feedback is not required. • Switch: Connects multiple devices within the same network and manages data frames.
Example: A keyboard sending input to the CPU, or a traditional television broadcast.
• Hub: A basic device that connects multiple devices but does not manage data traffic intelligently.
Half-Duplex Mode:
• Modem: Connects a network to the Internet by converting digital signals to analog and vice versa.
In half-duplex communication, data can flow in both directions, but only one side can transmit at a time.
When one device is sending, the other must wait until the transmission is complete before responding. • Access Point: Allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network.
This mode helps save bandwidth but introduces delays due to waiting turns.
Example: Walkie-talkies, where one person speaks and the other listens alternately.
Types of Networks Protocols and Standards

Local Area Network (LAN): Protocols define the rules and procedures for communication between network devices, ensuring that data is
A LAN connects devices within a limited area like a home, office, school, or a small group of buildings. exchanged accurately, securely, and efficiently.
It allows devices to share resources such as files, printers, and internet connections efficiently. They specify how connections are established, how data is formatted, how errors are detected and corrected, and
LANs are privately owned, provide high data transfer speeds (up to 1 Gbps or more), and usually have low installation how data is terminated after communication.
and maintenance costs.
Standards, on the other hand, establish a common set of guidelines to ensure interoperability among various devices
Security can be easier to manage because the network is confined to a small area.
and technologies.
Example: Office networks, school computer labs, home Wi-Fi networks.
They allow products from different manufacturers to communicate and operate together without compatibility
Wide Area Network (WAN): issues, promoting wider adoption and innovation.
A WAN spans a much larger geographical area, often covering cities, countries, or even continents.
Together, protocols handle how communication happens, while standards ensure different systems can participate in
It connects multiple LANs through routers, leased telephone lines, satellite links, or fiber-optic cables.
communication seamlessly.
WANs may be owned by multiple organizations or provided by telecommunications companies.
They offer lower data transfer speeds compared to LANs due to the vast distances involved but are critical for
enabling long-distance communication.
Example: A multinational corporation’s office branches linked by a private WAN. Protocols:
Protocols are structured sets of rules that dictate how devices communicate, including how data is formatted,
Internet: transmitted, received, and acknowledged.
The Internet is the largest and most diverse WAN, connecting millions of private, public, academic, business, and They ensure that communication between devices happens smoothly by establishing a common language and
government networks globally. method for exchanging data.
It uses standardized protocols (like TCP/IP) to allow communication between vastly different systems and devices. Protocols manage crucial aspects like error detection, data compression, synchronization, session control, and
Through the Internet, users access a wide variety of services such as email, websites, social media, cloud storage, e- connection termination.
commerce, and video conferencing. Without protocols, devices would not be able to understand each other, leading to failed or inconsistent
Security, privacy, and data management become more complex on the Internet compared to private networks. communication.
Example: Google, Facebook, online banking, video streaming platforms like YouTube. Different layers of communication (like application, transport, network, and physical layers) use specific protocols to
perform specialized tasks.
Examples of widely used protocols include HTTP for web browsing, FTP for file transfers, TCP/IP for general internet
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): communication, and SMTP for email transmission.

• Covers a larger area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically a city or a large campus. Examples:

• Used by organizations like city governments, universities, or large companies to connect multiple buildings. • HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages on the Internet.

• Example: A city-wide Wi-Fi network. • TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A foundational protocol suite that manages data
transmission over the Internet and many private networks.
Personal Area Network (PAN):
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers.
• A small network organized around an individual person within a range of a few meters.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.
• Used to connect personal devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable devices.
Purpose:
• Example: Bluetooth connection between a phone and wireless earphones.
• Ensure that devices can understand each other’s data formats.

• Control the speed and method of data transmission.

Importance of Computer Networks
• Manage error detection, correction, and proper data delivery.
• Enables resource sharing (hardware, software, and data).
• Enable reliable, secure communication between systems.
• Facilitates communication through emails, messaging, and video calls.

• Centralizes data management and improves data security.

Standards:
• Supports scalability for organizations to grow and expand operations.
Standards are formal specifications developed by recognized organizations (such as IEEE, ISO, ITU, and W3C) to
• Enhances collaboration and real-time information sharing.
ensure that hardware and software systems are compatible and interoperable across different platforms and
manufacturers.
They define common protocols, electrical characteristics, data formats, and operational procedures, promoting
consistency across industries.
Standards are essential for creating products that can work together reliably, regardless of brand or manufacturer, Disadvantages of LAN
thus enhancing user convenience and market competition.
• Limited Mobility: LANs typically use wired connections, which limits device mobility and flexibility.
They also support innovation by providing a stable foundation upon which new technologies and devices can be
developed. • Limited Range: The range of LANs is limited by the length of the Ethernet cable, which means that devices
Standards can cover areas like networking (IEEE 802.11 for Wi-Fi), security (ISO 27001 for information security), web must be physically located within a small area.
technologies (W3C standards like HTML5), and telecommunications (ITU standards for 5G).
• Installation: The installation of LANs can be complex, requiring the routing of cables and installation of
Following standards ensures quality, safety, efficiency, and global compatibility in the design and operation of
systems. switches.

Examples: Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

• IEEE 802.11: Standard for wireless networking (Wi-Fi). A WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network is a type of network that uses wireless technology, such as Wi-Fi, to
connect devices in the same area. WLAN connects devices within a small geographical area using the means of radio
• ISO 8859: Standard for character encoding, allowing different languages and scripts to be represented waves or infrared, and it connects devices to a central point of access, usually a router, without the need for them to
digitally. be physically wired together.
• IEEE 802.3: Standard for Ethernet-based wired networks. Advantages of WLAN
• USB Standards: Define how Universal Serial Bus (USB) devices communicate and are powered. • Mobility: WLANs provide greater device mobility and flexibility, as devices can connect wirelessly from
anywhere within the network range.
Purpose:
• Easy Installation: WLANs are easier to install than LANs, as they do not require physical cabling and switches.
• Promote compatibility and interoperability between devices from different manufacturers.
• Range: WLANs can cover a larger area than LANs, allowing for greater device connectivity and flexibility.
• Ensure consistent quality, safety, and efficiency across products and technologies.
Disadvantages of WLAN
• Facilitate mass production and reduce costs by providing universally accepted guidelines.
• Security: WLANs are less secure than LANs, as wireless signals can be intercepted by unauthorized users and
devices.
In Essence:
• Speed: WLANs provide slower data transfer rates than LANs, typically around 54 Mbps, which can result in
• Protocols focus on the method of communication — how the information is formatted, transmitted, and slower data transfer between devices.
interpreted.
• Interference: WLANs are susceptible to interference from other wireless devices, which can cause
• Standards focus on compatibility — setting common frameworks to ensure different systems can work connectivity issues.
together correctly and efficiently.
Similarities Between LAN and WLAN
Protocols are about the communication process; standards ensure that the equipment and software involved in the
• Connectivity : LANs and WLANs both are used to connect devises, thus to share files and other resources.
communication are built to universally accepted specifications.
• Protocols: Various types of data transfer protocols that are used with LANs and WLANs, such as Ethernet
and TCP/IP, ensure inter-compatibility among devices.
Local Area Network (LAN)
• Multi-Users Devices Support: LAN and WLAN can support multiple devices, wherein multi-users can share
A Local Area Network connects geographically close devices, such as a home, office, or school. LANs usually operate data and resources.
with physical connections via Ethernet cables connecting devices to a central hub or switch. They allow devices to
• Security: Encryption and authentication methods can be applied to LAN as well as WLAN in order to ensure
share data, resources, and peripherals like printers or storage devices.
access via authorized users only.
Advantages of LAN
• Network Hardware: Both LANs and WLANs require Network hardware for efficient operation such as routers,
• Speed: LANs provide fast data transfer rates, typically 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps, allowing for quick data transfer switches, and access points among others.
between devices.
• Internet Connection: The networks can be used to access the internet using LANs as well as WLANs, thus
• Security: LANs are generally more secure than WLANs, as they are physically connected and less susceptible making the network users access online resources and services.
to outside interference.

• Cost: LANs can be less expensive to set up and maintain than WLANs, as they use wired connections that are
often less expensive than wireless technology.
 Connecting a Regular LAN with VLANs

Difference Between LAN and WLAN Connecting a traditional Local Area Network (LAN) with Virtual LANs (VLANs) involves routers, switches, and often
VLAN-aware network devices, creating a system that allows devices to be logically grouped even if they are physically
LAN WLAN separated. This setup provides enhanced management, security, and performance by partitioning the network into
smaller, manageable virtual segments.

LAN stands for Local Area Network. WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. By logically grouping devices into VLANs, networks become more flexible, manageable, and secure. The technology
provides a clear separation of traffic, optimizes resource usage, and helps organizations build networks that are both
scalable and secure, regardless of physical location. Using VLANs also prepares a network for growth, ensuring that
LAN connections include both wired and wireless future changes or expansions don't require costly rewiring or hardware changes.
WLAN connections are completely wireless.
connections. . Connecting LANs:

• Routers connect different LANs, allowing communication between devices across separate networks.
LAN network is a collection of computers or other WLAN network is a collection of computers or other such • Switches connect devices within the same LAN or VLAN, managing data flow between them.
such network devices in a particular location that are network devices in a particular location that are connected
connected together by communication elements or together wirelessly by communication elements or network 2. VLANs (Virtual LANs):
network elements. elements. • VLANs group devices logically, regardless of physical location. This improves network management and
security by isolating traffic within each VLAN.

LAN is free from external attacks like interruption of 3. Benefits of Using VLANs:
Whereas, WLAN is vulnerable to external attacks.
signals, cyber criminal attacks and so on.
• Network Management: Simplifies administration by grouping devices logically.

• Security: Isolates sensitive traffic and restricts access between VLANs.

LAN is secure. WLAN is not secure.
• Reduced Broadcast Traffic: Limits broadcast traffic to specific VLANs.

• Cost Savings: Reduces the need for additional hardware by using existing infrastructure.
LAN network has lost its popularity due to the arrival
WLAN is popular. 4. Examples of VLAN Use Cases:
of latest wireless networks.
• Departmental Networks: Segregates departments into separate VLANs for better management and security.

Wired LAN needs physical access like connecting the Work on connecting wires to the switches and routers are • VoIP Phones: Prioritizes VoIP traffic on its own VLAN to improve call quality.
wires to the switches or routers. neglected. • Guest Networks: Isolates guest internet access from the main network for security.

In LAN, devices are connected locally with Ethernet MULTIPLEXING:

For WLAN Ethernet cable is not necessary.
cable.
Multiplexing is a method that enables multiple signals to share a single communication channel efficiently. This is
crucial for optimizing bandwidth usage and reducing the need for additional physical channels. There are several
Mobility limited. Outstanding mobility. types of multiplexing, each designed for specific communication technologies and requirements.

Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple signals to share a single communication channel. This is achieved by
using different frequency bands (Frequency Division Multiplexing, FDM), different time slots (Time Division
It varies due to external factors like environment and quality of
It may or may not vary with external factors like Multiplexing, TDM), or different wavelengths of light (Wavelength Division Multiplexing, WDM).
cables. Most of the external factors affect the signal
environment and quality of cables.
transmission. 1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

In FDM, the available bandwidth of a communication channel is divided into different frequency bands, each carrying
a separate signal. Each signal is assigned a unique frequency range, which prevents interference between the signals.
LAN is less expensive. WLAN is more expensive.
FDM is ideal for analog signals and is widely used in broadcasting

• Example:Radio and television broadcasting use FDM to transmit multiple channels over the same medium.
Example: Laptops, cellphones, tablets connected to a Each radio station or TV channel operates on a different frequency band, allowing multiple channels to be
Example: Computers connected in a college.
wireless router or hotspot. transmitted simultaneously without interference.
 • Application: Benefits of Multiplexing:

o Used in traditional analog television and radio broadcasting. • Efficient Bandwidth Usage: Multiple signals share a single channel.

o Can be applied in satellite communications and some wireless systems. • Cost-Effective: Reduces infrastructure needs.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): • Scalability: Handles more data without physical upgrades.

TDM divides the available transmission time on a channel into time slots, each dedicated to a different signal. Each • Improved Throughput: Boosts data capacity.
signal transmits during its own time slot, ensuring that only one signal occupies the channel at any given time. This
• Reduced Congestion: Minimizes network congestion.
allows multiple signals to share the same bandwidth, but each signal is transmitted sequentially.
• Simplified Management: Easier network management.
• Example:In digital telephony, multiple voice calls are transmitted over a single communication line. Each call
is assigned a time slot, so even though they share the same channel, only one call is transmitted during a
specific time period.
Spread Spectrum Concepts:
• Application:
Spread Spectrum is a technique used in wireless communication to distribute a signal over a broad range of
o Commonly used in digital telephony, cellular networks, and in systems where multiple data streams frequencies, enhancing both security and resistance to interference. By spreading the signal, it becomes harder for
share the same bandwidth (e.g., DSL lines). unauthorized users to intercept or jam, providing better reliability and robustness in noisy environments. Spread
Spectrum enhances wireless communication by spreading a signal across a broader frequency range, improving
o TDM is a key component of modern digital communication systems, like SONET (Synchronous Optical
security and interference resistance. FHSS uses rapid frequency hopping, while DSSS spreads the signal by
Network) and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network).
multiplying it with a high-frequency code. Both methods offer distinct benefits like security, interference resistance,
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): and reliable communication in crowded environments.

WDM is used in optical fiber communication to transmit multiple data streams simultaneously by assigning each Key Features of Spread Spectrum:
stream to a different wavelength (or color) of light. This effectively multiplies the capacity of a single fiber optic cable,
1. Security: The signal appears as noise to unauthorized receivers, making interception and eavesdropping
as each wavelength can carry a separate data stream. WDM enables high-capacity long-distance data transmission,
more difficult.
which is essential for high-speed internet and global communications.
2. Interference Resistance: Spread Spectrum allows the signal to continue functioning effectively even in
• Example:In fiber-optic communications, WDM allows multiple channels of data to be sent at once, with each
environments with high levels of interference or multiple users.
channel using a different light wavelength. This is particularly valuable for expanding the capacity of fiber
optic networks without requiring additional physical cables. 3. Efficiency: It enables multiple systems to operate in the same frequency band without causing significant
interference to each other.
• Application:

o Common in high-speed internet backbone networks, long-distance telecommunications, and data

centers where large volumes of data need to be transmitted quickly. Types of Spread Spectrum:
o Can be used in Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM), which allows many more 1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
wavelengths to be packed into a single fiber for even higher data throughput.
o Concept: In FHSS, the signal rapidly switches (hops) between different frequency channels within a
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): predefined range. This makes it harder for anyone to detect or intercept the signal.
Although not mentioned in your request, CDM is another common multiplexing technique used in some systems. In o How it Works: The transmitter and receiver synchronize to hop between frequencies at the same
CDM, each signal is encoded with a unique code, and multiple signals can be transmitted simultaneously over the time, based on a sequence known only to them.
same frequency channel. The receiver decodes the signals using the corresponding codes. This technique is widely
o Benefits:
used in cellular networks, such as the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) system.

• Example:CDMA technology used in cellular networks allows many mobile users to share the same frequency ▪ Resistance to jamming: Even if a frequency is jammed, the signal will hop to a new
spectrum by assigning a unique code to each user's data stream. frequency.

• Application: ▪ Security: The hopping pattern adds an extra layer of encryption, making it harder to track the
signal.
o Used in mobile telecommunications, especially in 3G networks.
o Example: Bluetooth and some Wi-Fi networks use FHSS to communicate securely and reliably.
o Applied in wireless communication systems for secure and efficient transmission.
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
 o Concept: In DSSS, the original signal is multiplied by a high-frequency code, spreading the signal over
a wider bandwidth. This code (known as a pseudorandom noise or PN code) ensures the signal is
spread across multiple frequencies simultaneously.

o How it Works: The signal is "spread" by the PN code before transmission. The receiver, knowing the
code, uses it to despread the signal and recover the original data.

o Benefits:

▪ Better resistance to interference and signal degradation.

▪ Enhanced security through spreading, making it difficult to detect or intercept the original
signal.

o Example: GPS and Wi-Fi (802.11b) use DSSS for better reliability and coverage.

Advantages of Spread Spectrum:

• Increased Reliability: Spread Spectrum improves the signal's ability to resist interference, making it more
reliable in crowded frequency environments.

• Low Probability of Intercept: The signal appears as noise, making it difficult for unauthorized parties to
detect or decode the information.

• Multiple Access: It allows multiple users to share the same frequency band without significant interference,
which is ideal for systems like cellular networks.