Psycho-Social Family Factors and Their Psychological Manifestations

Definition
Family has been defined in Oxford Dictionary (1989) in several ways, such as-
• The body of persons, who live in one house or under one head, including parents, children, servants,
etc.
• The group consisting of parents and their children, whether living together or not; in wider sense all
those whom is nearly connected by blood or affinity.
• A person's children and collectively
• Those descended, or claiming descent from a common ancestor.
In Psychiatry, the family denotes a group of individuals who live together during important phases of their
lifetime and are bound to each other by biological and/or social, psychological relationship. It is a group
defined by a sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing
of children. It may include collateral relationships, but living together of mates, forming with their offspring
a distinctive unity constitutes it. This unity has certain common characteristics in all societies although the
relationship between the individuals, family, society, culture and civilization are variable and complex
(Sethi, 1989).

1. Early Deprivation and Trauma: Early deprivation and trauma refer to the lack of essential emotional
and physical needs during critical periods of development, often due to poverty, institutionalization, or
unstable caregiving. Parental deprivation can even occur in intact families, where parents are unable or
unwilling to provide for a child’s needs for close and frequent human contact. But the most severe
manifestations of deprivation are usually seen among abandoned or orphaned children who are
institutionalized. The consequences of parental deprivation may lead to interference with the development of
basic trust, it might stunt the development of the child’s capacity for relatively anxiety free exchanges of
tenderness and intimacy with others, it might result in the child acquiring dysfunctional schemas and self-
schemas in which relationships are represented as unstable, untrustworthy and without affection. These
experiences interfere with brain development, particularly in regions related to emotion regulation and
executive functioning. Psychologically, individuals may present with chronic hypervigilance, emotional
numbing, low self-worth, and attachment insecurities. In the long term, this can predispose individuals to
anxiety disorders, complex PTSD, and dissociative identity disturbances (Perry, 2002).
2. Childhood trauma: Traumatic experiences temporarily shatter feelings of security, adequacy and worth
and influence our perceptions about ourselves and our environment. A psychic trauma is an aversive
experience that has harmful psychological effects on an individual. Such trauma may leave psychological
wounds that may never completely heal and later stress that reactivates these wounds may be particularly
difficult for an individual to handle. Conditioned responses stemming from traumatic experiences may
generalize to other situations. Thus one traumatic experience of almost drowning in a deep lake may lead to
fear of water further in life.
3. Neglect and Abuse: Neglect and abuse—whether physical, emotional, or sexual—significantly alter a
child's psychological trajectory. Neglected children may struggle with emotional expression, leading to
alexithymia, social withdrawal, and impaired empathy. Abuse often results in trauma re-experiencing, low
self-concept, self-harming behaviours, and difficulty forming trusting relationships. Longitudinal studies
link childhood abuse with major depressive disorder, borderline personality disorder, and substance use
disorders (Teicher & Samson, 2016).
4. Attachment: Attachment theory posits that early bonds with caregivers shape one's sense of security and
emotional regulation. Secure attachment promotes resilience, while insecure or disorganized attachment may
cause heightened dependency, fear of abandonment, or emotional volatility. Adults with maladaptive
attachment styles may experience difficulties in intimacy, unstable relationships, and chronic interpersonal
anxiety, often leading to mood and personality disorders (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007).
5. Separation: Separation from a primary caregiver, especially in early childhood, can result in acute stress
responses and attachment disruptions. Children may display regression, increased clinginess, or behavioural
outbursts. Over time, unresolved separation issues contribute to chronic anxiety, depressive symptoms, and
maladaptive interpersonal patterns. Adults with early separation histories may struggle with intimacy, grief
processing, and persistent feelings of abandonment (Bowlby, 1980).
6. Inadequate Parenting Styles: Parenting styles—authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful—
have distinct psychological impacts. Authoritarian parenting may instill compliance but fosters anxiety and
low autonomy. Permissive parenting can result in poor impulse control and boundary issues. Neglectful
parenting often leads to emotional disengagement, difficulty trusting others, and low motivation. These
influences can increase the risk of developing externalizing or internalizing psychological disorders in
adolescence and adulthood (Baumrind, 1991).
 Authoritative parenting is associated with the most positive early social development, with the
children tending to be energetic and friendly and showing development of general competencies for
dealing with others and with their environments (Baumrind, 1975, 1993; Emery and kitzman, 1995).
 Parents with an authoritarian style are high on control but low on warmth and their children tend to
be conflicted, irritable and moody (Baumrind, 1975, 1993).
 In permissive-indulgent parenting style, parents are high on warmth but low on discipline and
control. This style of parenting is associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour in children
(Baumrind, 1967; Hetherington and parke, 1993).
 Neglectful-uninvolved parenting is associated with disruptions in attachment during childhood
(Egeland and Sroufe, 1981) and with moodiness, low self esteem and conduct problems later in
childhood (Baumrind, 1991; Hetherington and parke, 1993). These children have problems with peer
relations and with academic performance (Hetherington and parke, 1993).
Parents tend to react with irritability, hostility and criticism to children who were high in negative mood and
low on adaptability (Rutter and Quinton, 1984). This in turn may set such children at risk for
psychopathology because they become ‘a focus of discord’ in the family (Rutter, 1991). As parents find it
difficult and stressful to deal with babies who are high on negative emotionality, many of these infants may
be more prone to developing avoidant styles of attachment than are infants who are not high on emotionality
(Rothbart, Posner and Hershey, 1995).
7. Marital Discord and Divorce: Exposure to high-conflict marital relationships can create a climate of fear
and emotional unpredictability. Children often internalize blame, leading to guilt, anxiety, and depressive
symptoms. Marital discord and divorce may also disrupt routine, attachment figures, and social supports.
Seriously discordant relationships of long standing are likely to be frustrating, hurtful and damaging in their
effects on the adults and their children (Emery & Kitzman, 1995). According to a study children could be
buffered against many of the damaging effects of marital conflict if one or both the parents are warm, has
proneness to give praise and approval and ability to inhibit rejecting behaviour toward their children (Katz &
Gottman, 1997) and also if they have high level of support from peer groups (Wasserstein & La Greca,
1996). In adolescence, this can manifest as conduct problems, identity confusion, and fear of commitment in
future relationships (Amato, 2000).
8. Maladaptive Peer Relationships: Family dysfunction often influences peer interactions. Children who
lack emotional modeling at home may struggle with empathy, assertiveness, or conflict resolution, leading to
peer rejection or bullying. Alternatively, they may form alliances with deviant peer groups to seek
belonging. These maladaptive peer interactions are linked with increased risk of conduct disorder, substance
abuse, and antisocial behavior (Dishion & Patterson, 2006).
9. Communication Style: The way families communicate—whether openly, avoidantly, or critically—has a
profound psychological effect. Dysfunctional communication (e.g., stonewalling, blame, invalidation)
fosters self-doubt, repressed anger, and poor emotional literacy. Children may either become emotionally
avoidant or hyper-reactive in relationships. Over time, such individuals may develop depression, anxiety, or
struggle with assertiveness and boundary-setting (Koerner & Fitzpatrick, 2002).
Parsons and Bales (1955) hypothesized that communication among the members is necessary to the
successful functioning of the family. It should be obvious that needs cannot be satisfied, problems solved, or
goals reached without communication. Adequate family functioning requires that all possible family role
relationships be maintained. Families which have not achieved this can be considered as inadequately
differentiated in structure and function.
10. Family Burden: Chronic caregiving burdens, particularly in families with mental illness, disability, or
chronic medical conditions, create emotional and physical stress. Caregivers may suffer from burnout,
anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal. In children or adolescents with caregiver roles, this may interfere
with identity development, academic functioning, and social competence, leading to adjustment disorders or
caregiver stress syndrome (Thompson & Ostroff, 2005).
11. Emotional Adaptation: The family's ability to emotionally adapt during stressors (e.g., loss, illness,
migration) determines individual resilience. Families that suppress emotion or rely on rigid roles may
produce members with poor coping skills, learned helplessness, or emotional detachment. Conversely,
families encouraging emotional expression and collaborative problem-solving cultivate resilience, emotional
intelligence, and adaptive functioning (Walsh, 2003).
12. Expressed Emotions and Relapse: High expressed emotion (EE)—marked by criticism, hostility, and
emotional over-involvement—is a key predictor of relapse in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia,
bipolar disorder, and depression. Individuals in high-EE environments often experience increased stress,
emotional reactivity, and feelings of rejection, which exacerbate symptoms and reduce treatment adherence
(Butzlaff & Hooley, 1998).