Computer organization
ESTES GROUP ( 2ND REPORTER )
What is computer organization?
Computer organization is the study of how a computer system's components are connected and work
together to perform a computer's architectural specifications. It's also known as microarchitecture.
What is the importance of computer organization?
Computer organization plays a vital role in ensuring efficient and effective operation of computer
systems. It serves as the interface between hardware and software components, managing resource
allocation, data processing and exchange. This optimization enhances system performance, speed and
throughput while minimizing bottlenecks.
Effective computer organization ensures data integrity, security and retrieval efficiency through strategic
memory and storage management. It also facilitates innovative advancements in fields like artificial
intelligence, cloud computing and the Internet of Things (IoT).
Computer organization optimizes system performance, efficiency and security by managing hardware-
software interactions, resource allocation and data processing. It enables:
• Key Benefits
1. Enhanced performance and speed
2. Efficient data management
3. Innovative advancements (AI, IoT, cloud computing)
4. Scalable system design
5. Improved troubleshooting and security
components of computer system
CPU
- The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is simply the central processor or the processor where most
calculation takes place.
- The Brain of the Computer.
ALU
Arithmetic Logic Unit
An arithmetic logic unit is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic operations. It
represents the fundamental building block of the central processing unit of a computer.
CU
Control Unit
CU stands for control unit, which is a vital component of a computer's central processing unit
(CPU). The CU's main role is to direct the CPU's operations by instructing other computer
components on how to respond to program instructions.
REGISTERS
Registers are a type of computer memory built directly into the processor or CPU (Central
Processing Unit) that is used to store and manipulate data during the execution of instructions.
MEMORY
RAM/ROM
Primary/main memory is volatile semiconductor memory that holds currently running programs
and data. RAM and ROM are types of main memory. RAM is read/write memory that stores data
temporarily while power is on, while ROM is read-only memory that permanently stores basic
input/output instructions.
STORAGE DEVICES
A computer's storage device is a hardware component that allows users to store and retrieve
digital data, such as programs, images, videos, and audio.
HHD
HARD DRIVE DISK
The hard drive of a computer is a device that stores all the software installed on a computer, as
well as all the data files created and used by this software.
SSD
Solid State Drive
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a data storage device that stores information using flash memory and
is primarily used for fast data retrieval:
I/O DEVICES
(Input and Output Devices)
- An input/output (I/O) device is a piece of hardware that can process, take, or output data. I/O
devices can receive data as input and send it to a computer, or send computer data to storage
media. • Input Devices Input devices are the devices that are used to send signals to the computer
for performing tasks. • Output Devices Output Devices are the devices that show us the result
after giving the input to a computer system
Data representation
What is DATA REPRESENTATION?
Data representation refers to how data is stored, processed, and transmitted in computer systems
and networks. It involves using a structured format or encoding to ensure data can be efficiently
understood and manipulated by machines. It is represented in binary format, as a sequence of 0s
and 1s, denoting 'off' and 'on' states respectively. The smallest component of this binary
representation is known as a bit, which stands for 'binary digit'. A byte, on the other hand,
generally encompasses 8 bits. An essential aspect of expressing numbers and text in a computer
system, are the decimal and hexadecimal number systems, and character encodings like ASCII
and Unicode.
Character Machines
Byte Machines
3 bits = ½ byte (1 Nibble) 6 bits = 1 bytes 12 bits = 2 bytes (½ Word) 24 bits = 4 bytes (1 Word)
4 bits = ½ byte (1 Nibble) 8 bits = 1 bytes 16 bits = 2 bytes (½ Word) 32 bits = 4 bytes (1 Word)
Importance of Data Representation in Computer Systems
Efficient Processing: Proper representation ensures data is processed quickly and accurately.
Storage Optimization: Compact formats save storage space. Data Communication: Standardized
formats enable seamless communication between systems. Error Handling: Clear representation
aids in detecting and correcting errors.
Text Encoding Standards ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
is a character encoding standard representing text using 7 or 8 bits. Unicode is a universal
character encoding standard that supports characters from multiple languages and scripts.
Try This! Text Data
Hello in ASCII:
Hello in Unicode: 0110001 01000010 01101001 01110100 in ASCII: U+0033 U+0042 U+0079
U+0054 U+0065 U+0053 in Unicode:
Numeric Data Octal 135 to Binary: Decimal 255 to Binary 11111111 to Hexadecimal: Octal
125715 to Binary 1010101111001101 to Hexadecimal:
memory organization Memory Organization refers to the way that the computer's
memory is arranged and managed.
Types of Memory RAM (Random Access Memory) - type of computer memory that
allows data to be read or written in any order. It is a volatile memory that can be accessed
randomly and is used to store data and programs temporarily while being used. ROM (Read Only
Memory) - type of computer memory that is non-volatile which means it retains its data even
when the power is turned off.
Cache Memory - It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory, and is much
smaller and faster than the main memory. It is located closer to the CPU. Also, it is essential for
reducing latency and ensuring the CPU operates efficiently.
Virtual Memory - This technique creates an illusion for the user and programs that there is
more RAM available than there physically is.
Flash memory - a type of non-volatile memory that is used in portable devices, such as USB
drives and memory cards. It is also used in solid-state drives (SSDs).
Magnetic Disk - Magnetic disks are used for mass storage in computer systems. They are
non-volatile and can store large amounts of data.
Level 0: CPU Registers Fastest and smallest memory directly accessible by the CPU.
Provides quickest access to data during computation.
Level 1: Cache Memory (SRAMs) Faster than main memory, located close to the CPU.
Used to store frequently accessed instructions and data.
Level 3: Magnetic Disk (Disk Storage) Slower but has significantly larger capacity.
Used for long-term storage of data and programs. Level 4: Optical Disks and Magnetic Tapes
Slowest but offers the highest storage capacity. Primarily used for backups, archives, and rarely
accessed data.
Level 2: Main Memory (DRAMs) Medium-speed memory. Stores the bulk of actively
used programs and data.
I/o organization
Input-Output Organization An important computer component that manages data transfer
between the computer’s central processing unit (CPU) and peripheral devices.
Input: Devices that allow you to enter data into the computer Keyboard: For typing text,
commands, and numbers. Mouse: For navigating the computer's graphical user interface.
Scanner: To input images and documents. Microphone: To input audio. Webcam: To input video
and images.
Peripheral devices - hardware components attached to a computer that extend its capabilities
beyond simple computation
Output: Devices that display or present information from the computer. Monitor: Displays
visual information (text, images, videos). Printer: Produces hard copies of documents. Speakers:
Output audio. Projector: Displays images and videos on a larger screen.
Peripheral devices - hardware components attached to a computer that extend its capabilities
beyond simple computation
Input/Output Interfaces Interfaces are like translators, enabling the CPU to communicate with
different devices. They act as intermediaries, converting data and control signals between the
CPU and the peripheral devices. USB (Universal Serial Bus): A versatile interface for connecting
a wide range of devices, from keyboards and mice to external hard drives and printers. HDMI
(High-Definition Multimedia Interface): Used for high-quality video and audio transmission to
TVs and monitors. Ethernet: For connecting to networks. Bluetooth: A wireless technology for
connecting various devices.
Modes of transfer
1. Program-controlled I/O In program-controlled I/O, the processor program controls the
complete data transfer. Here, CPU constantly monitors the peripheral, and until the I/O unit
indicates that it is ready for transfer, the CPU wait & stays in a loop. It is time-consuming as it
keeps the CPU busy needlessly.
2. Interrupt-Driven I/O
In this method, an interrupt command is used to inform the device about the start and end of
transfer. In the meantime the CPU executes other program. When the interface determines that
the device is ready for data transfer it generates an Interrupt Request and sends it to the
computer.
3. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
A dedicated hardware component (DMA controller) handles the transfer of data directly between
memory and the I/O device. This frees the CPU from the burden of managing data transfers,
allowing it to focus on other tasks.
performance and optimization
Performance and Optimization The methods and techniques used to improve a computer’s
processing speed and efficiency.
Pipelining
Pipelining in a CPU involves stages such as fetch, decode, execute, memory access, and write-
back, with each stage handled by specific units within the processor. Fetch Unit: Retrieves the
next instruction from memory. Decode Unit: Interprets the fetched instruction to understand the
required action.
Execution Unit: Performs the operation specified by the instruction. Memory Access Unit:
Reads from or writes data to memory if needed. Write-Back Unit: Writes the result of the
execution back to a register or memory.
Parallel Processing is when a computer uses multiple processors or cores to work on
different parts of a task at the same time.
Multi-Core Processors
Multi-Core Processors are CPUs with multiple cores, where each core works like a small
processor inside the main chip. These cores can handle different tasks at the same time, making
the computer faster and more efficient. It is commonly used for multitasking, like running apps,
games, and background tasks smoothly.
Optimization Factors
Improving parts like memory speed or cooling can make a computer work faster; for example,
upgrading to a solid-state drive (SSD) or adding a better cooling fan.
