<br>

he o
Dead-beat galvanometert brtosuibaq Ballistic galvanometertab o)
of
1.
It measures a steady current. 1.It measures a charge.
2. The coil rotates under the action of a con 2. The momentary passage of a charge causes
stant driving torque. an impulse while the coil has not moved
appreciably from its position of rest. This
mo
condition is achieved by increasing the
d ovigetlno bsoubntsdl ment of inertia of the coilto enhance the
10 to 20
time period of oscillation to about
ssbeak 2
seconds. The external driving torque is zero
when the coil rotates.
move
a 3. The damping is so small that the coil
3. The damping is so large that the coil is
ment isoscillatory.
nonoscillatory.
4. The coilis wound on a metal frame to
en 4. The coil frame is nonmetallic to reduce elec
is tromagnetic damping.
hance electromagnetic damping
of the galvanome
resistance of the gal-| 5. The external resistance
5. The total external
vanometer circuit must be less than XCDR
ter circuit must be greater than XCDR to
ensure oscillatory motion.
toobtain aperiodic motion. measures the charge.
6. Thesteady deflection
measures the current. 6. The throw
7. Current and voltage sensitivities
are rele-7.Quantity sensitivity is relevant.

vant.
<br>

1. Dead Beat Galvanometer

•
Design Principle:
• Critical Damping: Engineered to settle
rapidly (without oscillations) when
a
current is applied. This is achieved
through strong damping mechanisms,
Such as eddy currents induced in a metal
frame or core, which dissipate kinetic
energy.
• Low Moment of Inertia: The coil is
lightweight, enabling quick stabilization.
•
Function:
•
Measures steady currents (e.g., in
ammeters/voltmeters).
• The deflection is proportion al to the
current (\0 \propto \theta\), and the
needle stabilizes almost instantly.
• Key Feature:
• "Dead beat" refers to the absence of
Oscillations; the pointer comes to rest in
minimal time.
<br>

2. Ballistic Galvanometer

•
Design Principle:
• Minimal Damping: Lightly damped to
allow free oscillation, maximizingthe
initial "throw" (deflection).
•
High Moment of Inertia: A heavy coil
or large inertia ensures a long oscillation
period, allowing the coil to integrate a
brief current pulse before significant
movement ocCurs.
•
Function:
• Measures total charge (\(Q) from
transient currents (e.g., capacitor
discharge, magnetic flux experiments).
• (
The maximum deflection
(\theta ltextimax}}) is proportional to the
charge (\(Q\propto \theta_f\textímax}}\).
Key Feature:
• Relies on the angular momentum
imparted by a short-duration current
pulse. The first deflection reflects the
charge, even after the current has ceased.
<br>

Key Equations

•
Dead Beat: I= k0, where k is a constant
and 0 is the steady deflection.
• Ballistic: Q= komax, Where Omax is the peak
deflection.

In summary, the dead beat galvanometer

prioritizes stability for real-time current
measurement, while the ballistic
galvanometer captures the integrated
effect of transient currents, ideal for charge
quantification.
<br>

•
Definition:
CDR is the minimum resistance required
in a circuit to achieve critical damping, a
state where a system (e.g., a galvanometer
coil) returns to its equilibrium position as
quickly as possible without oscillating.
• Purpose:
•
Eliminates oscillations (overshooting) in
systems like galvanometers, ensuring the
pointer settles rapidly to its final position.
•
Prevents energy dissipation through
repeated oscillations, improving
measurement accuracy and speed.
•
How it works:
• In a
galvanometer, the coil is part of an
RLC circuit (resistor-inductor-capacitor
analog).
• The damping torque is proportional to
the coil's velocity and depends onthe
resistance in the circuit.
• At critical damping (achieved by setting
resistance = CDR), the system's motion is
aperiodic (non-oscillatory).
•
Formula:
For a galvanometer, CDR is calculated as:
2VJk
Reritical =
G2
<br>

Where:
•J= Moment of
inertia of the coil
• k =
Torsional constant of the suspension
•
G= Galvanometer constant (torque per
unit current).
<br>

2. Electromagnetic Damping
•
Definition:
A method of damping mechanical motion
usingelectromagnetic forces (e.g., eddy
currents) to oppose motion and dissipate
kinetic energy as heat.
• Principle:
Based on Faraday's Law of Induction and
Lenz's Law:
• When a conductor (e.g., a galvanometer
coil) moves in a magnetic field, eddy
currents are induced in the conductor.
These currents generate a counteracting
magnetic field that opposes the motion
(Lenz's Law),slowing the system.
•
Applications:
•
Galvanometers: Used in dead-beat
galvanometers to stabilize the coil quickly.
Eddy Current Brakes: Dampen motion
in trains, roller coasters, and industrial
machinery.
Vibration Control: Suppress oscillations
in sensitive instruments (e.g.,
seismometers).
<br>

•
Types of Damping:
1. Underdamped: System oscillates before
settling (used in ballistic galvanometers).
2. Critically Damped (CDR): Returns to
equilibrium without oscillation (ideal for
dead-beat galvanometers).
3. Overdamped: Returns slowly to
equilibrium without oscillation.
<br>

Relationship Between CDR and

Electromagnetic Damping
• CDR is the specific resistance value
needed to achieve critical damping in
a system that uses electromagnetic
damping (e.g., a galvanometer).
Electromagnetic damping is the broader
mechanism (using eddy currents), while
CDR is a parameter that quantifies the
resistance required for optimal damping.

Example: Dead-Beat Galvanometer

•
Uses electromagnetic damping with
a CDR-adjusted circuit to ensure the
coilstops instantly at the final deflection
position (no overshoot).
•
Without CDR, the coil would oscillate,
making readings slow and inacCurate.

Key Takeaways

CDR: A resistance value for optimal

non-oscillatory motion.
• A
Electromagnetic Damping:
physics-based method to suppress motion
using inducedcurrents
<br>

1. Current Sensitivity
•
Definition:
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer
is the angular deflection (0) produced
per unit current () flowingthrough its coil.
It quantifies how 'sensitive" the instrument
is to small changes in current.
• Formula:
NBA
Current Sensitivity (S) =7
Where:
• N =Number of turns in the coil
• B =
Magnetic field strength
• A =
Area of the coil
• k =
Torsional constant of the suspension
wire (restoring torque per unit twist).
• Key Points:
• A
higher S means the galvanometer can
detect smaller currents.
•
Increased N, B, or A improves
sensitivity, while a stiffer suspension
(larger \(k) reduces it.
• per ampere (rad/A) or
Unit: radians

divisions per ampere (e.g., 10div/uA).

<br>

2. Voltage Sensitivity

Definition:
The voltage sensitivity is the angular
deflection (0) per unit voltage (V) applied
across the galvanometer terminals. It
indicates how effectively the instrument
responds to voltage.
•
Formula:
Voltage Sensitivity (S,) = =
G

Where:
• S; =
Current sensitivity
• G = Internal resistance of the
galvanometer.
= IR\):
Alternatively, using Ohm's Law (\(V

Sy=
S
V
IG G

• Key Points:
Voltage sensitivity depends on
both current sensitivity and the
galvanometer's internal resistan ce (\(G).
• To Sv, either:
increase
•
Increase S (e.g., by adding more coil
turns),
Decrease G (e.g., usingthicker wire in
the coil).
<br>

• Unit: radians per volt (rad/V) or

divisions per volt.

Relationship Between Current and

Voltage Sensitivity
St
Sy=
G

Voltage sensitivity is inversely

proportional to the galvanometer's
resistance.
• Agalvanometer with high current
sensitivity but high resistan ce may still
have pOor voltage sensitivity.
<br>

Practical Implications
1. Current Measurement:
•A galvanometer with high current
sensitivity (\(S I\) is ideal for measuring
tiny currents (e.g., in microammeters).
2. Voltage Measurement:
• For voltage measurements, the
galvanometer is converted into a
voltmeter by adding a high series
resistance. However, its inherent voltage
sensitivity (\(S V) determines its baseline
performance.
3. Trade-offs:
Increasing N (turns) boosts S; but also
increases G,which may limit Sv.
• A
low-resistance galvanometer (G))
improves \(SV but may require more
current, risking damage.
<br>

Example

Suppose a galvanometer has:

=
•
Current sensitivity S =5 div/mA 5000
div/A,
•
Internal resistance G= 50.

Its voltage sensitivity is:

S 5000 div /A
=
Sy= 100div/V.
G 50

This means 100 divisions of deflection occur

per volt applied.
<br>

Key Takeaway

•
Current sensitivity measures how well the
galvanometer detects current.
• Voltage sensitivity measures its
responsiveness to voltage, influenced
by both current sensitivity and internal
resistance.
•
Engineers balance these parameters
to optimize instruments for specific
applications (e.g., sensitive ammeters vs.
voltmeters).