Chapter-2

Communication: Communication is a process of establishing a link between sender and receiver to ensure a
secure and efficient exchange of information.
Components of data communication (five):
1. Sender (data source + transmitter): Sender device from where the data is sent. Ex- Mobile, Computer,
Telephone, Microphone, Camera, Keyboard, Modem, Router etc.
2. Receiver (data destination + output transducer): Receiver device that receive the message from sender.
Ex- Loudspeaker, Modem, Router, Mobile, Computer, Telephone etc.
3. Message: Data which is sent. Ex- Image, text, video, audio etc.
4. Medium: Medium is the way or path through which the message is sent. Ex- Twisted pair cable, co-axial
cable, Fiber optics cable, radio wave, micro wave.
5. Protocol: A set of rules or procedures for transmitting data between Sender and receiver. Ex- FTP,
SMTP, POP, GSM, LTE etc.

In source data is stored as digital signal but the digital signal can’t be transmitted that’s why it has to be
converted into analog signal. Analog signal is transmitted through the medium to the receiver. The receiver
device receive analog signal then convert to digital signal again to make understandable to the receiver device.
Bandwidth: Bandwidth is a range of frequency within a given band that denotes the rate of data transfer in
per unit time. Usually it is measured in bps (bit per second).
8 bits = 1 Byte [ b= bit and B= Byte]
1024 Bytes = 1 KB (Kilobyte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Megabyte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Gigabyte)
1024 GB = 1 TB (Terabyte)
Problem-1: If your internet speed is 512 Kbps, how long will it takes to download a 10 MB file?
Answer: 10 MB = 10*1024*8 = 81920 Kb
Time required = File size / Speed
= 81920/512
= 160 seconds
= 3 minutes (Answer)
Problem-2: If 100000 bit of data can transfer a channel within 15 seconds, then determine the bandwidth.
Answer: Bandwidth = data/time
= 100000/ 15
= 6667 bps or 6.5 Kbps (Answer).
Data Transmission Method: Data transmission method refers to the procedure how data is transmitted
from sender to receiver.

Parallel data transmission: When multiple data bits are transmitted through multiple channels at a time
then it is called parallel data transmission method.

This is more natural and the fastest data transmission process. But it is practical method for long distance. It
is used in internal data transmission of computer, video streaming, printer with parallel port.
Serial data transmission: When data bits are organized in an order and sent from sender to receiver one
after another through only one channel then it is called serial data transmission method.

Here order of data bits are important. This method is more reliable because it ensures that the previous bit is
sent then the next bit will be sent. USB (universal serial bus) port this method.
Clock Pulse: Clock pulse refers to the active state of the clock signal.
Bit Synchronization: Bit synchronization is a technique that determine the beginning and ending of a bit
with clock pulse. A receiver can identify and recover data with this technique.
According to bit synchronization serial data transmission is three (3) types:
1. Asynchronous data transmission: In this method data is transmitted character by character. 1 character =
8 bits. The receiver is always ready to receive data. In this method a start bit and one/two stop bits are added
at the beginning and ending of a character. Here the interval times are not same for every character that’s why
it is called asynchronous data transmission system. Keyboard use this method. Used for few amount of data.
Advantages of Asynchronous Transmission:
1. Data can be sent at any time and receiver can receive it.
2. Data buffer register is not required at the time of inputting data for saving it.
3. Its installation cost is very low.
Disadvantages of Asynchronous Transmission:
1. If data doesn't transmit, medium will remain idle. That is very costly for microwave or satellite medium.
2. Its efficiency is lower comparing to synchronous transmission.
3. Data transmission speed is low.
4. It is not reliable as synchronous transmission.

2. Synchronous data transmission: When data is transmitted block by block with a fixed amount of break
time then it is called synchronous data transmission system. Block size can be 80 to130 bytes. At the beginning
a header file size of 1 or 2 bytes is added to synchronize the clock of receiver and at the ending a trailer file
size of 1 or 2 bytes is added to denote ending of a block and the error correction information. Primary memory
like RAM, Cache and CPU memory is used. Cellular and TV network use this method.

Advantages of Synchronous Data Transmission:

1. Efficiency of synchronous transmission is much higher comparing to asynchronous transmission.
2. Since transmission is going on all the time, transmission speed is higher.
3. Time interval is not required after every character.
4. Start and stop bit is not required.
5. Less time is required in this data transmission method.
Disadvantages of Synchronous Transmission:
1. Primary storage device is required in sender end.
2. It is much costly.
3. A header information signal must exist at the staring of each bit, whereas a trailer information signal is
required at the end.
4. Circuit is complex.

Synchronous data transmission is better than Asynchronous data transmission in the case of speed, reliability
and efficiency.
Difference between Asynchronous and synchronous data transmission method:
Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

data is sent in form of blocks or frames. data is sent in form of bytes or characters.

Synchronous transmission is fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.

Synchronous transmission is costly. Asynchronous transmission is economical.

In Synchronous transmission, the time interval In Asynchronous transmission, the time interval
of transmission is constant. of transmission is not constant, it is random.

In this transmission, users have to wait till the Here, users do not have to wait for the
transmission is complete before getting a completion of transmission in order to get a
response back from the server. response from the server.

In Synchronous transmission, there is no gap In Asynchronous transmission, there is a gap

present between data. present between data.

While in Asynchronous transmission, the

Efficient use of transmission lines is done in
transmission line remains empty during a gap in
synchronous transmission.
character transmission.

The start and stop bits are not used in The start and stop bits are used in transmitting
transmitting data. data that imposes extra overhead.

Synchronous transmission needs precisely Asynchronous transmission does not need

synchronized clocks for the information of new synchronized clocks as parity bit is used in this
bytes. transmission for information of new bytes.

Errors are detected and corrected when the data

Errors are detected and corrected in real time.
is received.

3. Isochronous data transmission: This method is the combination of asynchronous and synchronous data
transmission. It transmits data with start and stop bit like asynchronous and block by block like synchronous
data transmission. No primary memory is needed. It is used in real time application like audio and video call
as well as multimedia communication.

Data transmission efficiency: It means the ratio of real and transmitted data.
Real data
Transmission efficiency, η = × 100%
Total data
Example: Calculate the efficiency of asynchronous and synchronous transmission for 10 kilobyte data
transmission.
We know that, 1 byte = 8 bit
1 kilobyte = 1024 byte
10 kilobyte = 1024 × 10 bytes = 1024×10 × 8 bit = 81920 bits
So real data = 81920 bits
For Asynchronous Transmission: Extra 3 bit is needed for 8 bits. (1 start bit and 2 stop bit)
Extra bits needed with 80000 bits = (3×81920)/8 bit = 30720 bits
Total data = (81920+30720) bits = 112640 bits
So, efficiency of asynchronous transmission, η = (81920/112640) x 100% = 72.72%

For Synchronous Transmission:

Suppose block size is 80 bytes.
80 byte or 80 × 8 = 640 bits
Extra bits needed for 640 bits = 4 byte or 32 bit (Header 2 byte and trailer 2 byte)
Extra bit required for 81920 bits = (32 × 81920)/640 = 4096 bits
Total data = 81920+4096 = 86016 bits
So, efficiency of synchronous transmission, η = (81920/86016) x 100% = 95.24%

Data Transmission Mode: Data flow direction at the time of data transmission is known as data
transmission mode. There are three (3) types of data transmission mode:

1. Simplex Mode: One-way data transmission is known

as simplex mode. Here only the sender can send data
receiver can’t send back any feedback. Ex- Radio, TV.

2. Full Duplex Mode: When sender and receiver both

can send and receive data at the same time then it is
called full duplex mode.

3. Half Duplex Mode: When sender and receiver both

can send and receive data but not at the same time then
it is called half duplex mode. Send and receive can be
done one after another.

Data Distribution Mode: It refers to the number of receivers the sender can send data at a time.

1. Unicast: Uni means one. So, when the data is

transmitted to only one receiver then it is called
Unicast mode. All three data transmission mode
Can be unicast. Ex- SMS, joystick etc.
2. Broadcast: When data is transmitted to all the
connected devices at a time then it is called
broadcast mode. It can work only simplex mode.
Ex- Radio, TV etc.
3. Multicast: When the sender send data to the
selective number of users then it called multicast
mode. It works on half and full duplex mode.
Ex- Group SMS, video conference etc.
Medium of data transmission: The channels used to transmit data from sender to receiver is called the data
transmission medium. Generally, it is two types:
1. Guided medium (wire or cable medium)
a. Twisted pair cable
b. Co-axial cable
c. Fiber optics cable
2. Unguided medium (wireless medium)
a. Radio wave (3 KHz to 300 GHz)
b. Micro wave (300 MHz to 300 GHz)
c. Infrared wave (300 GHz to 400 THz)
Twisted pair cable: Four pair of twisted copper wire made this cable. Colors of them are Blue, Brown,
Orange, Green. The common wire color is white. It is two different types UTP (Unshielded twisted pair
cable) and STP (Shielded twisted pair cable).
1. Bandwidth of this cable is 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps
2. It can transmit data up-to 100 meters without repeater.
3. Generally used in educational institutions, homes etc.

UTP STP

Co-axial cable: All the components of this cable stays to one axis that’s why it is called co-axial cable. The
copper mesh is used to reduce the electromagnetic disturbance. Used in cable TV, LAN etc. This cable is
better than twisted pair cable. There are two types of co-axial cable:
1. Thin-net: Lightweight and flexible. 10base2 means it can transmit data at the speed of 10Mbps and
the distance is up-to 185 meters.
2. Thick-net: Heavy and non-flexible. 10base5 means it can transmit data at the speed of 10Mbps and
the distance is up-to 500 meters.

Fiber optics cable: It is made of glass or transparent plastic. This cable can transmit data at the speed of
light.
Characteristics:
1. Since light signals do not spread out as electrical signals, the attenuation is negligible.
2. Light signals are transmitted from it, instead of electrical signals.
3. It has a diameter of 150 microns. [1 micron = 10-6 m]
4. Fiber optic cables are often used as the network backbone of a much larger network.
5. Fiber optic cables do not have EMI, so they can be used in almost all circumstances.
Core: The innermost part of the fiber is called core where the reflection index is highest. Diameter of core
can be 4 to 100 micron.
Clad: The outer part of the fiber is called clad where the reflection index is lower.
Advantages:
1. High band speed
2. Free from EMI
3. Accurate data transfers
4. Not influenced by temperature or pressure of the environment
5. Lightweight and portable
6. Minimum energy loss
Disadvantages:
1. Installation is very complicated
2. Expensive compared with other cables
3. Highly skilled workers are needed for installation and maintenance
4. It cannot be bent easily, so installation is more difficult
There are two types of fiber optics cable:
1. Single mode fiber: If the diameter of the core is
8 to 12 micron and it can transmit only one signal
at a time then it is called single mode fiber. It is
used for long distance high speed transmission.
2. Multi-mode fiber: If the diameter of the core is
50 to 100 micron and it can transmit multiple signal
at a time then it is called multimode fiber. It is used
for short distance slower transmission.

Bluetooth: This technology is used for open wireless communication at short distance within low
bandwidth. A network created with Bluetooth is called piconet. A piconet can contain maximum 8 devices
one of them acts as master and others as slave. Multiple piconets can create scatternet.
1. It works with a frequency of 2.45 GHz
2. Coverage area is 3-10 meters.
3. Used to create WPAN (wireless personal area network).
4. It has low privacy system.
5. Data transmission rate up-to 1 Mbps.
6. It can send and receive data as half duplex mode.
7. IEEE standard is 802.15

Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity.

1. It works with a frequency of 2.4 GHz to 5 GHz
2. Coverage area is 50 to 300 meters.
3. Used to create WLAN (wireless local area network).
4. It has some security and privacy issues.
5. It can send and receive data as half duplex mode.
6. IEEE standard is 802.11

WiMax: It is used to provide high speed internet connection. Its full form is worldwide interoperability for
microwave access.
1. It works with a frequency of 2 GHz to 66 GHz
2. Coverage area is 10 to 50 Kilometers.
3. Data transmission speed is 80 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
4. Used to create WMAN (wireless Metropolitan area network).
5. It has good security and privacy system.
6. License is needed to setup.
 7. IEEE standard is 802.16
8. It has two components, Base station and Receiver antenna.
**IEEE- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

Mobile Generation: It explains the revolution of mobile phone in size and capacity.

First Generation (1G) [1979-1990]:

1. Analog data transmission system was used
2. First mobile was manufactured by Motorola DynaTAC.
3. United States used AMPS (Advance Mobile Phone System).
4. UK used TACS (Total Access Communication System).
5. Used semiconductor and microprocessor
6. Big in size and had Antenna.
7. Couldn’t make international calls
8. Couldn’t communicate with other service providers.
9. No internet, No SMS system

Second Generation (2G) [1991-2000]:

1. Digital data transmission system was used
2. Use GSM (Global system for Mobile Communication)
3. Use CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
4. Enable mobile internet
5. Could make international calls
6. Introduce SMS and MMS

Third Generation (3G) [2001-2008]:

1. Japanese company Docomo first manufacture this mobile
2. Use circuit and packet switching both technique.
3. High speed internet rate of 2 Mbps
4. Use 3GPP (3rd Gen partnership project)
5. Use HSPA (High speed package access)
6. Use WCDMA (Wideband code division multiple access)
7. Use UMTS (Universal mobile Telecommunication system)
8. Enable video call, Mobile banking, E-commerce, freedom of multimedia

Fourth Generation(4G) [2009-2020]:

1. Replace packet switching to Internet protocol system
2. Enables networks like LAN, WAN
3. Start VoIP (Voice over internet protocol)
4. Use LTE (Long term evaluation)
5. Internet speed 100 Mbps
6. 50 times faster than 3G
7. Enables mobile web access, IP telephony, Gaming service, Video conferencing, HD mobile
streaming, 3D TV.

Fifth Generation (5G) [2020-running]:

1. Enables WWWW (Worldwide wireless web)
2. NR (New Radio Technology)
3. RAT (Radio Access Technology)
4. MIMO (Multiple input Multiple output)
5. Enables 4K mobile TV
6. Multiple times faster than 4G
Computer Network: When some computers are connected for sharing information among them in a certain
geographical are then it is called a computer network.

Objectives of Computer networking:

Information Resource Sharing: The Internet is the best example of sharing information
resources through a network. Locally connected computers can also share their internal information with
LAN software.

Software Resource Sharing: Software resources can be shared via a computer

network. Using this, only one software license can be bought and shared among the devices of the network
so that every device of the network can use the software. In banking we see everyone using different
computer terminals, but actually they are using the same software suits through networking.

Hardware Resource Sharing: We see offices, cyber cafes, banks and other
organizations use network printers, where all the devices in the network can send print commands to one
single printer. This is a really cost effective solution for any organization and makes the best use
out of the device.

Types of Networks:

Based on ownership:
1. Private Network
2. Public Network
Based on Service:
1. Peer to Peer Network
2. Client server network
a. Centralized server network
b. Distributed server network
3. Hybrid Network
Based on coverage area:
1. PAN (Personal area network): Up-to 10 meters
2. LAN (Local area network): Up-to 1 Km
3. CAN (Campus area network): 1 to 5 Km
4. MAN (Metropolitan area network): Up-to 50 Km
5. WAN (Wide area network): More coverage area than MAN

Network Device: Devices that are used to connect the senders and receivers.

1. Modem: Modem comes from Modulation (Digital to analog signal conversion) and Demodulation
(Analog to digital signal conversion).
2. Hub: It is a box type shape device that has 8 ports to connect devices and broadcast data.
3. Switch: It is same shape of Hub but it can filter data from MAC (media access control address) to
multicast data.
4. Router: It is a device that can connect two different networks with same protocol. It uses NAT
(network address translation).
5. Gateway: It is a device that can connect two different networks with different protocol. It uses PAT
(Protocol address translation).
6. NIC: Network Interface card, this card is attached with motherboard that enables a device to be
connected to a network.

Network Topology: It refer to the way in which the links and nodes of a network are arranged to be
connected with each other.
 1. Bus topology: When all the nodes are connected to a
main cable then it is called BUS topology. It’s data
flow is bidirectional. Fiber optics cable is used as
bus/backbone cable. It checks all the devices between
sender and receiver but the data is only received by
the targeted receiver.

Advantages of bus Topology:

1. Bust topology is cost effective and the installation is simple.
2. Using repeaters or connectors one can easily increase the length of the backbone thus expanding the
network.
3. New devices can be added to the network at any time.
4. Even if any node is disconnected from the network or is disabled, the network keeps running.
5. No centralized server is required.
Disadvantages of bus topology:
1. Data transfer rate is slower.
2. If there is a problem with the bus the whole network suffers.
3. Adding computers to the network and expanding the network increases the network traffic and
decreases network speed.
4. Chances of data collision.

Ring Topology: When a computer is connected to the

next and previous computer and in this manner the last
computer is connected to the first computer to make a
ring it is called ring topology. Data flow is unidirectional.
Check a device if it is the receiver then it receives the data
Or it passes to the next device until the receiver receives
the data.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
1. No centralized server is required.
2. Data flow is one directional so no chance of data collision.
3. Each computer gets equal priority in sending data.
4. Requires less cable so cost effective.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
1. Data transfer rate is slower.
2. As the data flow is unidirectional and each computer receives and passes on the data until the
destination is reached, if one computer device in the network is disabled. The whole network
becomes disabled.
3. Adding or removing a computer device into the network disrupts the whole network.
4. Increasing the number of computer devices in the network increases the data transmission time too.
5. Complex software is needed to manage this topology.

Star Topology: In star topology all the devices are connected

through a central device (Hub or Switch) to share information
among them. Data flow is bidirectional. Easy to find the faulty
device.
Advantages of Star Topology:
1. Data transfer rate is faster
2. Less chances of data collision
3. Adding or removing nodes from the network does not disrupt the network.
4. The network keeps running even if one or more nodes are disabled or disconnected.
5. Increasing the number of network devices does not affect the data transfer rate.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:
1. Problems with the hub or switch can disable the whole network
2. Each node requires cables of their own, so increases cost.
3. Two computers in a network can’t directly communicate with each other.

Tree Topology: In this topology devices are connected

as the branches of a tree. Different levels are considered
and the main node is called root and the last level is
called peripheral terminal. Data flow is bidirectional.
It is the combination of bus and star topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology:

1. Can expand the network easily with expanding a branch or adding a new branch.
2. This provides a better system while constructing a large network.
3. The network does not face any disruption if one or more nodes are disconnected or disabled.
4. Data security is higher.
5. If a branch is disabled or disconnected the rest of the network can still be running.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:
1. If the root host server is disabled or disconnected the whole network is disabled.
2. This is more complex than other topologies.
3. This is costlier than other topologies.
4. If a computer in the network is disabled, the devices connected to it in lower levels are
disconnected too.

Mesh Topology: When all the devices are individually

Connected with each other with dedicated cable then
It is called mesh topology. Data flow is bidirectional.
Number of nodes = n(n-1)/2, where n is number of
Devices. It is the most secure and fastest topology.
Defense and banking sector use this topology.

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

1. Data transfer rate is faster.
2. Increasing computer devices in the network does not affect the data transmission speed.
3. The network keeps running even if one or more devices inside the network are disconnected or
disabled.
4. Data transmission can continue even if one or more cables are disconnected or disabled.
5. No centralized server is required.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
1. This is costlier than any other topology
2. Installation and configuration of the network is complex.
3. Cost increases if a new device is added to the network.

Hybrid Topology: It can combine more than one topologies

Among bus, ring, star and mesh. It is used to meet all the
Requirements of the user.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology:

1. Network can be easily expanded using hubs or witches.
2. Troubleshooting of the network is easier.
3. If a part of the topology is disabled or disconnected, it does not affect other parts of the network.
4. As this is a combination of all other topologies it has the advantages of the other topologies too.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology:
1. The maintenance cost is higher and the maintenance of this system is complex.
2. Installation and configuration of this system is complicated.
3. As this is a combination of all other topologies, it has the disadvantages of the other topologies too.

Cloud computing: Cloud computing is a business model in which the customers use their own computers to
access services, storage spaces from the service providers who have servers situated anywhere in the cloud.

Service model of cloud computing: There are four service models of cloud computing.

laaS (Infrastructure as a service): In this model service infrastructures are rented out via the cloud.
Amazon's elastic computing cloud or EC2 is a popular model of this kind. Each EC2 server machine runs 1
to 8 virtual machines. These machines are rented out to the customers. Customers can install any kind of
operating systems and software in these virtual machines and run application software of their choosing.

PaaS (Platform as a Service): In this model rather than renting out virtual machines, computing platforms
are rented out as services. This can include operating systems, development environment, execution
environment, database, web servers and such. Customers can use this type of cloud services for application
development without having to buy expensive computing systems on their own. Microsoft's Azure and
Google's App Engine are prime examples of PaaS.

SaaS (Software as a Service): In this model customers get access to the service application and their
databases. So the customers do not have to use their own storage, processing power for the software or
maintain and update it in anyways. Google Drive is a very popular SaaS system. Example of this model are
Google App, Dropbox, Hubspot etc.

Naas (Network as a Service): This is a model where customers rent network services from a cloud vendor
instead of setting up their own network infrastructure. For example, the organization of Arjaca and Partino
provides services of WAN and SVPN (Secure Virtual Private Network).

Resource Flexibility and Scalability: Cloud services can cater to customers of any kind. Customers can
increase or decrease their demand at any time and cloud services can cater to that instantly and remotely.

On Demand Services: Cloud services work as on demand service models. Customers can start or end their
services at any given moment.

Pay as You Go: Customers do not have to pay in advance for any services. The payment will be according
to the amount of the service taken. If the customer did not use a portion of a service, he needs not pay for it.