SAMPLING

by
Marzia Sultana
 Sampling

 How to achieve a sample for analysis

 Achieving a sample for Quality Control

 Analysis depends upon Sampling

 The Method of sampling is very important.

Sampling:
What is the sample process
The process by which we collect a representative
portion or small amount of the materials that
represent the bulk of the material being analyzed.

The sample should be homogeneous

The sample size should be small such unit

mg, ml, or cc

Devise totally independent method of

sampling to minimize the possibility of error
Identify Population
(Bulk of Material)
 Variability in the sample
Variability is the difference between in analytical content or composition of
the matrix with respect to additional external factors.

Two main causes of variability

Variability with position is fairly in the case of solid sampling where analyte
concentrations can vary by several orders of magnitude over quite small
distance. This may also occur for liquid and gas samples for large
populations.

Variability with time may occur in a random or semi random fashion, or

with some pronounced cyclic nature. It is important to take samples in such
a way as to avoid the coincidence of periodicity in the sampling process.
 Types of samples
Sample can be classified into three major group

1. Depending on the physical state of sample

1. Solid Sample
2. Liquid sample
3. Gaseous Sample
2. Depending on the size of samples
1. Macro Sample
2. Semimicro sample
3. Micro sample
4. Ultramicro sample
3. Sampling process
1. Grab Sample
2. Gross Sample
3. Representative sample
4. Laboratory sample
5. Analysis Sample
 Depending on physical state
Gas sampling
o Gases are more homogeneous than solid and liquid

sample.

o It easily escape therefore double container or sealed

container such as poly vinyl fluoride bag is used.

o Sample should collect rapidly.

o A grab sample is satisfactory in many cases.

 Depending on size
 Depending on sampling process
Grab sample
o Grab sampling, also known as lab sampling or spot
sampling, is the collecting of a sample of liquid or gas in
a pipeline, tank, or system with the intent of transporting
the sample to a laboratory for analysis.
o It is the most common and easy type of sample.
o Grab samples do provide an immediate sample.
o For example, you take a grab sample when you
collected a beaker of raw water and tested it for pH.
Problem with Grab sample
o It may not be completely
representative of the entire flow.
o Composition of sample may vary
with time, place or environment.
o Must be collected carefully to
make them as representative as
possible.
o Mixing two or more grab samples
may not give a result which
averages the characteristics of
the samples
 Gross sample
o The initial sample is called the primary or gross sample, and it
may be a single increment drawn from the target population or
a composite of several increments.
o Represents the whole as a relatively small fraction
o Degree of heterogeneity of the whole.
o In many cases we cannot analyze the gross sample without
first preparing the sample for analyze by reducing the sample’s
particle size, by converting the sample into a more readily
analyzable form, or by improving its homogeneity.
Representative sample
o A representative sample is a subset of a population that seeks to

accurately reflect the characteristics of the larger group.

o For large surveys, researchers may divide the population into strata

according to ethnic markers, gender characteristics, age groups, income,

or geographical locations to ensure that they are using a representative

sample.

o Representative samples often yield the best results but they can be the

most difficult type of sample to obtain.

Laboratory sample
o A sample are taken for laboratory analysis. It is the smaller and a part of
representative sample.
o As the sample come to the lab, converted by a set of operations to the
test sample, from which an analyst selects a test portion for an analytical
determination

Analysis sample

o A part of lab sample to be analyzed.

o Smaller size
o Part is analyzed and rest are stored for archiving and re-checking.
 Population vs. sample

You need to understand the difference between a population and a sample,

and identify the target population of your research.

The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about.

The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data
from.
When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s
rarely possible to collect data from every person in that
group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the
group of individuals who will actually participate in the
research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how
you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is
called a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods
that you can use in your research:
Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
Types of Probability sampling methods
Random selecting or without planning
Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
Your sampling frame should include the whole
population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools
like random number generators or other techniques
that are based entirely on chance.

Example: You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a social
media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the company
database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100
numbers.
Systematic sampling
• Systematic sampling means that there is a gap, or interval, between each
selected unit in the sample
• Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually
slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are
chosen at regular intervals.
Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that

may differ in important ways. To use this sampling method, you divide the
population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic
(e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).
The main of this sampling that it can make the sampling strategy more
efficient
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but
each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every
individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals
from within each cluster using one of the techniques
above. This is called multistage sampling.

Example: The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same
number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to
collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
 Non-probability sampling methods
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not
every individual has a chance of being included.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research.
In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but
to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.
 Convenience sampling

A convenience sample simply includes the individuals

who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial
data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk
for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after
each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a
convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as
you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.
Quota sampling

Divide the population into mutually exclusive

subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample
units until you reach your quota. These units share
specific characteristics, determined by you prior to
forming your strata.
The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who
makes up your sample.
Example: Suppose you want to gauge consumer interest in a new meal kit delivery service on
your research goals, you can divide your population into several strata, such as:
Dietary preferences
Age group
Zip code
Purposive sampling
This is also known as judgment sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a sample that
is most useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research. An effective
purposive sample must have clear criteria and
rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe
your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware
of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Example: You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at
your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in
order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling
can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.
The downside here is also representativeness, as you
have no way of knowing how representative your
sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting
others. This can lead to sampling bias.

Example: You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all
homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to
participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she knows in the
area.
 Sample Size Criteria
To determine the appropriate sample size, the basic

factors to be considered are the;

• Level of precision required by users

• The confidence level desired

• Degree of variability
 Sample Size Criteria
• Level of precision also known as
sampling error.
Level of precision • It is the measure of how close an
estimate is to the actual characteristic
in the population
Example: If a researcher finds that 70% • The range is often estimated in
of students in the sample have adopted percentage points (e.g. ± 5%).
a recommended practice of submitting
• Higher level of precision requires large
the assignments with a precision rate of
sample sizes and higher cost to
± 5%, she/he can conclude that
between 65% to 75% of students in the achieve those samples.
population have adopted the practice.
 Sample Size Criteria
• It is also regarded as risk level.
• Based on central limit theorem, which
Confidence level means when a population is repeatedly
Example: If a 95% confidence level is sampled, the average value of the
selected, 95 out of 100 samples will attribute obtained by those samples is
have the true population value within
equal to the true population value..
the range of precision specified earlier.
 Sample Size Criteria
• Refers the distribution of attributes in
the population.
Degree of variability • The more heterogeneous a population,
the larger the sample size required to
be, to obtain a given level of precision.
• Foe less variable (more homogeneous
population, smaller sample sizes.

Noted: a proportion of 50% indicates a greater level

of variability than that of 20% or 80%, because 20%
and 80% indicate that a large majority do not or do,
respectively, have the attribute of interest.
 Sample Transportation

• Sample to be transported to laboratory according to the GLP

and QA program.
• Refrigerated
• Ambient conditions
• Pre-treated according to the requirements.
 Sample Processing

The sample preparation involves;

 Dissolution
 Digestion
 Extraction
 Filtration
 Evaporation
Dissolution
The objective of sample dissolution is to mix a solid or
nonaqueous liquid sample quantitatively with water or mineral
acids to produce a homogeneous aqueous solution, so that
subsequent separation and analyses may be performed.
Digestion
Sample digestion in chemistry is the process of breaking down a
sample of a solid material into smaller pieces, through the use of
a combination of heat and chemicals, in order to make it easier to
analyze the composition of the sample. Types: Acid digestion,
Base digestion, Microwave digestion.
Filtration
• To separate the solid/insoluble/precipitate or crystals from the
liquid or mother liquor.
• Gravity filter
• Vacuum filter etc.
Extraction
• Extraction is one of the most common techniques
for sample preparation. It involves extracting the analyte of
interest from the sample matrix.
• Liquid-liquid extraction
• Solid liquid extraction
• Chromatography etc.
• Types: Dry ashing, Wet ashing