Lecture 5
Mass, Bernoulli, and
Energy Equations
1
Objectives
Apply the conservation of mass equation to
balance the incoming and outgoing flow rates
in a flow system.
Understand the use and limitations of the
Bernoulli equation, and apply it to solve a
variety of fluid flow problems.
Recognize various forms of mechanical
energy, and work with energy conversion
efficiencies.
Work with the energy equation expressed in
terms of heads, and use it to determine
turbine power output and pumping power
requirements.
2
CONSERVATION OF MASS
Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and
it cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
Closed systems: The mass of the system remain constant during a
process.
Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep
track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.
Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions.
Mass m and energy E can be converted to each other:
E mc 2
c is the speed of light in a vacuum, c = 2.9979 108 m/s
The mass change due to energy change is negligible.
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.
m& δm& Vn dAc
Ac Ac
kg/s The normal velocity Vn for a surface
is the component of velocity
1 perpendicular to the surface.
Average velocity Vavg
Ac Ac
Vn dAc
Mass flow rate
m& Vavg Ac kg/s
& V&
m& V
v
Volume flow rate
The volume flow rate is the
volume of fluid flowing through
V& Vn dAc Vavg Ac VAc (m3 /s) a cross section per unit time.
Ac
Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume:
Total mass entering Total mass leaving Net change of mass
the CV during t the CV during t within the CV during t
m& in m& out dmCV /dt (kg)
the total rates of mass
m& in and m& out flow into and out of the
control volume
the rate of change of
dmCV /dt mass within the control
volume boundaries.
Mass balance is applicable to any control volume undergoing
any kind of process.
The conservation of mass equation is
obtained by replacing B in the Reynolds
transport theorem by mass m, and b by 1
(m per unit mass = m/m = 1).
The time rate of change of mass within the control volume plus the net mass flow
rate through the control surface is equal to zero.
r r
General conservation of mass:
d
dt CV
dV V n dA 0
CS
d
dV Vn A Vn A 0
dt CV
out in
d dmCV
dV m& m& or m& m&
dt CV
in out dt in out
A control surface should
always be selected normal to
the flow at all locations where
it crosses the fluid flow to
avoid complications, even
though the result is the same.
Moving or deforming control volumes
d
dt CV
dV V r n dA 0
CS
V r V V CS
Steady-flow processes
Multiple inlets and exits
• •
= − =0 = (kg/s)
in out
" != " ! (kg/s)
in out
Steady, incompressible flow (liquids)
V= V (m /s)
in out
!= ! (m /s)
in out 8
Bernoulli equation
Bernoulli equation: An approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
2
P V
gz cons tan t
2
(along a streamline)
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
gz1 gz3 ........ cons tan t
2 2
1 2 3 9
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
Hydrostatic pressure
The kinetic and potential
energies of the fluid can be
V2
converted to flow energy (and P gz cons tan t
vice versa) during flow, causing 2
the pressure to change.
Multiplying the Bernoulli Static pressure Dynamic pressure
equation by the density gives
P is the static pressure: It does not incorporate any dynamic
effects; it represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the
fluid.
V2/2 is the dynamic pressure: It represents the pressure rise when
the fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
gz is the hydrostatic pressure: It accounts for the elevation
effects, i.e., fluid weight on pressure.
Total pressure: The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic
pressures. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states that the
total pressure along a streamline is constant.
10
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Steady flow The Bernoulli equation is applicable to
steady flow.
Frictionless flow Every flow involves some friction,
no matter how small, and frictional effects may or
may not be negligible.
No shaft work The Bernoulli equation is not
applicable in a flow section that involves a pump,
turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since
such devices destroy the streamlines and carry out
energy interactions with the fluid particles.
11
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Incompressible flow Density is taken constant
in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation. The
flow is incompressible for liquids and also by
gases at Mach numbers less than about 0.3.
No heat transfer The Bernoulli equation should
not be used for flow sections that involve
significant temperature change such as heating
or cooling sections.
Flow along a streamline Strictly speaking, the
Bernoulli equation is applicable along a
streamline. However, when a region of the flow
is irrotational and there is negligibly small
vorticity in the flow field, the Bernoulli
equation becomes applicable across streamlines
as well.
12
Bernoulli equation: restrictions
Frictional effects, heat transfer, and components that disturb
the streamlined structure of flow make the Bernoulli equation
invalid. It should not be used in any of the flows shown here.
13
Hydraulic grade line (HGL), P/g + z The line that represents the sum of
the static pressure and the elevation heads.
Energy grade line (EGL), P/g + V2/2g + z The line that represents the
total head of the fluid.
Dynamic head, V2/2g The difference between the heights of EGL and
HGL.
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) and the energy grade line (EGL) for free
discharge from a reservoir through a horizontal pipe with a diffuser.
Bernoulli equation: heads
P V2
z H constant (along a streamline)
g 2g
P
Hydraulic grade line: z
g
Energy grade line: P V2
z
g 2 g
P2 P1 V22 V12
emech g z 2 z1
2
15
Notes on HGL and EGL
For stationary bodies such as reservoirs or lakes,
the EGL and HGL coincide with the free surface of
the liquid.
The EGL is always a distance V2/2g above the HGL.
These two curves approach each other as the
velocity decreases, and they diverge as the velocity
increases.
In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow, EGL is
horizontal and its height remains constant.
For open-channel flow, the HGL coincides with the
free surface of the liquid, and the EGL is a
distance V2/2g above the free surface.
16
Notes on HGL and EGL
At a pipe exit, the pressure head is zero (atmospheric pressure)
and thus the HGL coincides with the pipe outlet.
The mechanical energy loss due to frictional effects (conversion
to thermal energy) causes the EGL and HGL to slope downward in
the direction of flow. The slope is a measure of the head loss in
the pipe. A component, such as a valve, that generates
significant frictional effects causes a sudden drop in both EGL
and HGL at that location.
A steep jump/drop occurs in EGL and HGL whenever mechanical
energy is added/removed to/from the fluid (pump/turbine).
The (gage) pressure of a fluid is zero at locations where the HGL
intersects the fluid. The pressure in a flow section that lies
above the HGL is negative, and the pressure in a section that lies
below the HGL is positive.
17
In an idealized Bernoulli-type
flow, EGL is horizontal and its
height remains constant. But this A steep jump occurs in EGL and HGL
is not the case for HGL when the whenever mechanical energy is added to
flow velocity varies along the the fluid by a pump, and a steep drop
flow. occurs whenever mechanical energy is
removed from the fluid by a turbine.
The gage pressure of a fluid is zero at
locations where the HGL intersects the
fluid, and the pressure is negative
(vacuum) in a flow section that lies
above the HGL. 18
Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Example: Water Discharge
from a Large Tank
19
Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Example: Spraying
Water into the Air
20
Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Example: Siphoning Out
Gasoline from a Fuel
Tank
21
Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Example: Velocity
Measurement by a Pitot
Tube
Close-up of a Pitot-static probe,
showing the stagnation pressure hole
and two of the five static
circumferential pressure holes.
22
General energy equation
The energy change of a system during
a process is equal to the net work and
heat transfer between the system and
its surroundings.
Conservation of energy principle
Energy cannot be created or destroyed during
a process; it can only change forms 23
General energy equation
Esys Qnet ,in Wshaft ,net in
For a closed system: Ein Eout (Qin Qout ) (Win Wout )
dEsys
Q net ,in W shaft ,net in
dt
Q& net in Q& in Q& out
W&net in W&in W&out
Heat, Q
Work, Wshaft w pump ,u W pump ,u
h pump ,u
g mg
wturbine ,e W turbine ,e
hturbine ,e 24
g mg
General energy equation from Reynolds theorem
For a control volume:
P V2
e gz Unit: J/kg
2
For a fixed CV, uniform flow at inlets & outlets
d V2 V2
Q& net in W&shaft, net in e dV m& h gz m& h gz
dt CV out 2 in 2 25
Energy equation in terms of heads
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
z1 hpump,u z2 hturbine,e hL
1 g 2 g 2 g 2 g
where
wpump, u W&pump, u pumpW&pump
• hpump, u
&
& is the useful head delivered to
g mg mg
the fluid by the pump. Because of irreversible losses in the pump,
ℎpump, u is less than ' pump/ by the factor (pump.
wturbine, e W&turbine, e W&turbine
• hturbine, e is the extracted head
g &
mg turbine mg
&
removed from the fluid by the turbine. Because of irreversible losses in
the turbine, ℎ )*+,-., . is greater than ' )*+,-. / / by the factor (turbine.
emech loss, piping E& mech loss, piping
• hL is the irreversible head loss between
g &
mg
1 and 2 due to all components of the piping system other than the pump
or turbine.
Mechanical energy flow chart for a fluid flow system that
involves a pump and a turbine. Vertical dimensions show each
energy term expressed as an equivalent column height of fluid,
i.e., head.
Kinetic energy correction factor
P1 V12 P2 V22
z1 h pump ,u gz 2 hturbine ,e hL
1 g 2 g 2 g 2g
The kinetic energy of a fluid stream
obtained from V2/2 is not the same as the
actual kinetic energy of the fluid stream
since the square of a sum is not equal to the
sum of the squares of its components.
This error can be corrected by replacing
the kinetic energy terms V2/2 in the energy
equation by Vavg2/2, where is the kinetic
energy correction factor.
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
1 z1 hpump, u 2 z2 hturbine, e hL
g 2g g 2g
The correction factor is 2.0 for fully
developed laminar pipe flow, and it ranges
between 1.04 and 1.11 for fully developed
turbulent flow in a round pipe. 28
Mechanical Energy Unit: J/kg
2
Mechanical energy of a flowing P V
emech gz
fluid per unit mass 2
P Flow V 2 Kinetic
gz Potential
energy 2 energy energy
P2 P1 V22 V12
Mechanical energy change: emech g ( z 2 z1 )
2
The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow
if its pressure, density, velocity, and elevation remain
constant.
In the absence of any irreversible losses, the mechanical
energy change represents the mechanical work supplied to the
fluid (if emech > 0) or extracted from the fluid (if emech < 0). 29
Mechanical Efficiency
Shaft work: The transfer of mechanical energy is usually
accomplished by a rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work
is often referred to as shaft work.
A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an
electric motor) and transfers it to the fluid as mechanical
energy (less frictional losses).
A turbine converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to
shaft work.
Mechanical efficiency
of a device or process
The effectiveness of the conversion process between the
mechanical work supplied or extracted and the mechanical
energy of the fluid is expressed by the pump efficiency and
turbine efficiency,
30
Turbine efficiency
Mechanical efficiency:
Mechanical power output W shaft ,out W turbine
turbine
Mechanical power decrease of the fluid
E mech , fluid W turbine ,e
Generator efficiency:
W elect ,out
motor
W shaft ,in
Overall (combined) efficiency:
W elect ,out W elect ,out
turbine gen turbine gen
W turbine ,e E mech, fluid 31
Pump efficiency
Mechanical efficiency:
Mechanical power increase of the fluid E mech, fluid W pump ,u
pump
Mechanical power input
W shaft ,in W pump
Motor efficiency:
W shaft ,out
motor
W elect ,in
Overall (combined) efficiency:
W pump ,u E mech, fluid
pump motor pump motor
W elect ,in W elect ,in
The mechanical efficiency of a fan is
the ratio of the kinetic energy of air
at the fan exit to the mechanical 32
power input.
Example: Hydroelectric Power Generation from a Dam
P1 V12 P V 2
0 2 2 z0 h
1 z1 hpump,
turbine, e hL
g 2g
u
g 2
2g
2
hturbine, e z1 hL
W&turbine, e mgh
& turbine, e W&electric turbine genW&turbine, e 33
Example: Pumping Water from a Lake to a Reservoir
Energy equation W&pump u pumpW&shaft
between 1 and 2
P1 V12 & P2 V2 2
m& 1 gz1 Wpump, u m& 2 gz2
2 2
W&turbine, e E& mech loos, piping
W&pump, u mgz
& 2 E& mech loos, piping
E& mech loos, piping mgh
& L
For the pump
W&pump, u
P Pout Pin
V&
Summary
• Introduction • Conservation of Mass
• Conservation of Mass • Mass and Volume Flow Rates
• Conservation of Energy • Conservation of Mass Principle
• Mass Balance for Steady-Flow
• The Bernoulli Equation Processes
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
• Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
• Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
• Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
• Applications of the Bernouli Equation
• General Energy Equation
• Energy Transfer by Heat, Q
• Energy Transfer by Work, W
• Shaft Work
• Work Done by Pressure Forces
• Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
• Kinetic Energy Correction Factor,
• Mechanical Energy and Efficiency
