General of inheritance is called
Unit 1:complete
Laws of dominance.
Inheritance
Biology 2 if
Lesson 1.2 Using
the genotype of an
Laws of individual is
Inheritance to heterozygous, the
Predict Genotypes dominant allele will
completely mask the
and Phenotypes
expression of the
Transmission recessive allele.
genetics , as discussed
if the individual has the
in the previous chapter,
recessive phenotype,
focuses on the patterns
its genotype will
of inheritance of
always be
biological
homozygous or true-
characteristics. Both the
breeding . By contrast,
laws of segregation and
an individual with the
independent
dominant trait may
assortment are
either be
essential in predicting
homozygous or
the genotypes and
heterozygous .One
phenotypes of parents
can identify the
and offspring in genetic
genotype of an
crosses and human
individual with the
reproduction.
dominant trait through
Using a Testcross to a testcross ., is a
Determine Genotypes simple technique
wherein the individual
For some genes, one with the dominant
allele completely masks phenotype is crossed
the expression of the with or mated with a
other allele. This mode recessive individual .
The results of the cross a. Case 1 : If only
will help you determine one phenotype
parental genotype, appears in F 1 ,
particularly the one with which is the
the dominant trait. dominant trait, the
genotype must be
homozygous.
b. Case 2 : Two
phenotypes
appear in the
offspring —both
dominant and
recessive
individuals are
present. The
presence of a
recessive offspring
in the progeny is an
In both crosses, the indication that both
second allele of the parents must have
dominant individual contributed
is left blank . recessive alleles.
Regardless, the Thus, the first
phenotype is still parent must be
dominant because heterozygous in
only one allele is this scenario.
needed to express Both the laws of
round seeds. After segregation and
mating with the independent
recessive (i.e., wrinkled- assortment are
seeded peas) individual, fundamental to the
there are two possible analysis of matings in
results. both plants and
animals. These laws
are used to determine genes are involved in
the genotypes and the cross.
phenotypes of both
parents and offspring
in crosses by using the T
Punnett square ,
forked-line method ,
and probability
method .
Punnett Square
-named after the
The testcross of a
British geneticist
violet-flowered pea
Reginald C. Punnet.
gives 100% violet-
-the alleles of both flowered offspring if
parents must be the dominant parent
first determined, is homozygous (left).
these alleles are fused By contrast, F 1
to determine the consists of 50%
possible genotypes in violet- and 50%
the offspring. Then, white-flowered peas
the principle of if the violet-flowered
dominance is applied parent is
to determine the heterozygous (right).
corresponding
phenotypes of each
genotype. This There are cases when
straightforward the parents of a
method is applicable cross will not
when one or two produce the same
number of allelic ○ The first parent can
combinations . For produce gametes AB ,
ex,. your objective is to Ab , aB , and ab
subject a doubly
heterozygous pea
plant (AaBb) with
round and yellow
seeds to a testcross
● , it was discussed
that the round seed is . ○ The second parent
dominant over the only produces the
wrinkled seed , while gamete ab .
the yellow seed is
dominant over the
green seed.
The Six Different
● If a testcross is done, Monohybrid
the other parent Combinations
must be recessive for
(forked-line method and
both traits , i.e., it
probability method),
should have wrinkled
where the laws of
and green seeds .
inheritance are applied,
● If we assign gene A will require the use of
for seed shape (then, A Punnett squares for
for round and a for every gene pair of a
wrinkled seeds) and cross. Solving genetic
gene B for seed color crosses requires
(then, B for yellow and mastery of the six
b for green seeds), we possible parental
can generate the cross combinations in a
AaBb × aabb . monohybrid cross ,
The basic monohybrid
cross can come in six
different combinations
by using a hypothetical alleles of each parent
gene A . Each has and combining them in
characteristic GR square-like units.
(genotypic ratio) and PR Rather, each of the
(phenotypic ratio). monohybrid crosses in
the problem is analyzed
The six possible
for their outcomes. This
parental combinations
method can also
in a monohybrid cross :
separately identify the
genotypic ratio from
the phenotypic
ratio. From the
previous lesson, the
cross between two
dihybrids, AaBb ×
AaBb, 16 square
units as needed.
The process also
requires a close
assessment of which of
Forked-Line the genotypes are
identical. The forked-
Method line method, by
also a technique that contrast, can directly
can be used to give you offspring ratios
determine the without counting them
genotypic and individually. For ex,. a
phenotypic ratios of a cross between doubly
genetic cross involving heterozygous tall pea
two or more genes. with violet flowers is
made.
This method does not
require the
identification and
enumeration of the
genotypes are also
possible.
6. Branch each of the
three outcomes of gene N
to that of gene M in the
first column.
7. Lastly, combine the
genotypes from both the
The forked-line method is first and second columns
an ideal method to and multiply their
enumerate all possible probabilities.
genotypes of a cross and
By contrast, the fork-line
to directly obtain their method can also be used to
ratios without counting determine the phenotypic
genotypes. ratio of a cross without
identifying its genotypic ratio.
1. Assigning the
respective alleles, M –tall,
m –dwarf, N –violet, and n
–white, our cross will be
MmNn × MmNn.
2. first determine the
result of each of the
monohybrid crosses .
3. Two monohybrid crosses
are involved: Mm × Mm
and Nn × Nn.
4. The first column of Fig. Probability Method
1.2.5. represents the
outcomes of Mm × Mm considered easier and
cross. more convenient than
5. Then, work on Nn × Nn both the Punnett square
cross in the second and the fork-line
column , where three method. There will be
cases, for example, together is equal to
when you are provided the product of their
with a cross, and you individual
will be asked to just probabilities .
provide the
probability of
obtaining a type of
offspring instead of
the entire genotypic 1. For example, you
and phenotypic want to determine the
ratios . chance of getting an AA
genotype from the cross
Probability refers to Aa × Aa.
the mathematical
measurement of 2. By looking at below,
likelihood or chance. each gamete has a 50%
probability of obtaining
the dominant or
recessive allele.
3. Because the
segregation of
alleles between male
and female
Product Rule of gametogenesis are
Probability independent events
According to the (i.e., they do not
product rule of influence each other),
probability , the we should multiply
chance of two or probabilities.
more independent 4. Thus, AA probability
events to occur is equal to (probability
of an egg with
A)×
(probability of
sperm with A ) = (1/2)
× (1/2) = 1/4 or 25%
Sum Rule of Probability
the probability of
either of two
mutually exclusive
events occurring is
equal to the sum of
their individual
probabilities . For ex.,
you are given one turn
or attempt to roll a die,
and you want to
determine the chance
of landing with two or
four. The probability
would be equal to the
sum of their individual
probabilities, i.e.,
(chance of getting a
two) + (chance of
getting a four) = 1/6 +
1/6 = 2/6 or 1/3 or
33.33% . These two
events are mutually
exclusive because
either of them can
happen, but not at the
same time.
