RC - Al Khwarizmi International College Foundation, Inc.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

MIDTERM COVERAGE
1st Semester, S. Y. 2025-2026

PERSONAL CONCEPT NOTES

SUMMARY

PART ONE
Meiosis is the nuclear division that leads to the formation of sex cells or gametes. This is an important process in
sexual reproduction to allow traits to be passed from generation to generation.
Importance of Meiosis
The formation of gametes is very important for the following reasons:
1. It keeps the chromosomes number constant in a species by reproducing haploid sex cells. When
fertilization occurs, the fusion of the 2 haploid cells form a diploid cell.
2. It creates variation because gametes formed are genetically unique from each other.
Gametogenesis is the process of the formation of gametes. Specifically, spermatogenesis in males,
oogenesis in females. Both processes take place during their development called puberty. Males undergo the
process throughout their lifetime while females end it during their menopausal stage, around the age of fifty.
Spermatogenesis produces unlimited number of sperm cells. Females produce only one egg normally every month
or during their cycle.

Homologous Chromosomes
Cells that undergo meiosis or gamete formation are the germ cells. These are found in the reproductive system
of individuals still having the total number of 46 chromosomes. These are paired as seen in a karyotype, a picture
of all the chromosomes of an organism.
The pair of chromosomes contains the hereditary traits, found in genes. Each pair of a combination of a trait
from each parent called homologous chromosomes carrying the same trait of different version. The 1-22 pairs
are the body chromosomes also known as autosome. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosome that determines
gender. The larger pair is the X chromosome, the smaller one is the Y chromosome.
Females have two X chromosomes (XX). Males have X and Y (XY).
Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, is known as the father of genetics. He worked on garden peas in a
monastery when he experimented on how traits are inherited by pollinating the selected traits. In his time, most
plant and animal breeders believed that both sexes contributed equally to the trait of offspring. But they were not
able to record differences or variation within a family in many generation.
In the past, it was believed that inherited traits from parent are blended or thoroughly mixed just like
mixing coffee and milk. This is not the case. Mendel’s experiment will explain this.
This use of garden peas has several reasons.
1. It was easy to cultivate for a short time.
2. They self-pollinate normally.
3. It could be crossed by hand. (He used brush to dust pollen from the anther to the stigma or another
flower after cutting the stamen to avoid
One-Trait Inheritance (MONOHYBRID)

A monohybrid cross involves tracking the inheritance of a single trait. This trait is determined by a single
gene with two alleles (different versions of the gene). One allele is usually dominant (represented by a capital
letter), and the other is recessive (represented by a lowercase letter).

Mendel started crossing traits after confirming that his peas were purebred, i.e., true breeding. Purple
flowers always produced purple flowers always produced white flowers. Mendel called the parents the P
generation, first filial generation offspring (F1) and F2 for the second filial generation.

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 When he crossed purebred purple with a white flower, he observed that all the offspring were purple (F1
generation). Crossing the F1 generation with each other produced purple flowers and the reappearance of the
white flower in a ratio close to 3:1 of purple and white, respectively.

Punnett Square: A Punnett square is a diagram used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring.

Below are the results of sample crosses he did with his garden peas.
Drominant Recessive
A = axial a = terminal
Homozygous (dominant) crossed with Homozygous (recessive)

AA x aa
A A
a Aa Aa
a Aa Aa

Genotypes: Phenotypes:
Aa = 4/4 Axial = 4/4

Heterozygous crossed with Heterozygous

Aa x Aa
A A
a AA Aa
a Aa aa

Genotype Phenotype
AA = ¼ Axial = 3/4
Aa = 2/4 Terminal = ¼
Aa = ¼
Ratio: 1:2:1 3:1

Heterozygous crossed with Homozygous (recessive)

Aa x aa
A A
a Aa aa
a Aa aa

Genotype Phenotype
aa = 2/4 Axial = 2/4
aa = 2/4 Terminal = 2/4

Mendel did the same experiments but this time focusing on the 6 other traits. He noticed almost the same
result with his initial experiment. First filial generation (F1) produced only one trait that he termed dominant and
the recessive traits.
His mathematical skills led him to make his interpretation. He reasoned that the 3:1 ration of the F2 generation
was possible only if:

1. The F1 parents contained two separate copies of each hereditary factor, one dominant and the other
recessive.
2. The factors separated when the sex cells were formed and each sex cell carried only one copy of each
trait.
3. Random assortment of all sex cells occurred during fertilization.

Two-trait Inheritance (Dihybrid Cross)

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  A double factor cross or di-hybrid cross is a genetic study in which two pairs of alleles are
followed from the parental generation to the offspring.
 Here you are working with 2 different characteristics from each parent.
 It is necessary to use Mendel’s law of independent assortment when considering di-hybrid
crosses.

Mendel also experimented on plants that differed in two traits. An example was on the yellow (Y) and green
(y) color of pea seeds. Mendel crossed heterozygous round, heterozygous yellow with another heterozygous round,
heterozygous yellow pea.
The pair of alleles of each parent have to be independently assorted before they are inherited or pass on to
offspring. This observation was the basis of Mendel’s genetics second law, the Law of Independent Assortment. The
phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1 results when two individual with two heterozygous traits are crossed.

RY Ry rY ry

RY RRYY RRYy RrYy RrYy

Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy

rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy

ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

Genotypes: Phenotypes:

RRYY = 1/16 Round, Yellow = 9

RRYy = 2/16 Round, Green = 3
RrYY = 2/16 Wrinkled, Yellow = 3
RrYy = 4/16 Wrinkled, Green = 1
RRyy = 1/16
Rryy = 2/16
rrYY = 1/16
rrYy – 2/16
rryy = 1/16

Ratios: 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1 9:3:3:1

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

In humans the allele for free earlobes is dominant over that for attached earlobes. The allele for dark hair
dominates over that for light hair. If both parents are heterozygous for earlobe shape and hair color, what
types of offspring can they produce? What is the probability for each type?

STEPS IN SOLVING HEREDITY PROBLEMS

1. Assign a symbol for each trait
 E=free earlobes; e=attached earlobes
 D=dark hair, d=light hair
2. Determine the genotype and phenotype of each combination
3. Determine all the possible kinds of gametes each parent can produce [EH, Eh, eH, eh]
4. Determine all possible combinations that can result when these gametes unite [Punette Square]

Gametes Genotype of both parents = EeHh

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 From each parent EH Eh eH eh

EH EEHH EEhh EehH Eehh

Eh EEhH EEhh EehH Eehh

eH eEHH eEHh eeHH eeHh

eh eEhH eEhh eehH eehh

PHENOTYPE EH 1  Free earlobes / Dark Hair

PHENOTYPE Eh 2  Free earlobes / light hair
PHENOTYPE eH 3  Attached earlobes / dark hair
PHENOTYPE eh 4  Attached earlobes / light hair

PHENOTYPE OF THE PROGENY: The probability of having a given phenotype:

9/16 = P1
3/16 = P2
3/16 = P3
1/16 = P4
Phenotypic Ratio
9:3:3:1

Genetics is the study of heredity, how traits are passed from parents to offspring. A pedigree is a visual
tool used to track the inheritance of traits within a family across generations. It’s like a family tree, but instead of
names, it shows the presence or absence of a specific trait. Understanding pedigrees helps us predict the
likelihood of a child inheriting a particular trait. This lesson will cover the basics of interpreting pedigrees, focusing
on autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked recessive inheritance patterns.

SYMBOLS IN PEDIGREE

 Squares represent males; circles represent females.

 Shaded symbols indicate affected individuals.
 Unfilled Shape: Indicates an individual who does not express the trait
 A horizontal line connects mates; vertical lines connect parents to offspring.
 Autosomal dominant traits appear in every generation.
 Autosomal recessive traits may skip generations.
 X-linked recessive traits are more common in males.
 Fraternal twins (one birth line branching out into the individual twin) vs. identical twins (same as
fraternal twins but with a horizontal bar connecting the branches)
 Generation (Roman numerals) vs. individuals in the same generation, counting left to right (designated
by Hindu- Arabic numerals)
 Proband (arrow)

Analyzing Pedigrees:

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 To analyze a pedigree, start by identifying the inheritance pattern (autosomal dominant, autosomal
recessive, or X-linked recessive) based on the characteristics described above. For autosomal dominant trait: Two
affected individuals can have a normal offspring. For autosomal recessive trait: Two affected individuals can NEVER
have a normal offspring

Practice Pedigree Analysis:

INSTRUCTIONS:

a. Group the students into 4-6, provide questions for each group to answers
b. Present their answers to the class.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (WITH POSSIBLE ANSWERS)

For each pedigree, provide questions for the group to answer

I. Identify the mode of inheritance
II. Write down the genotypes of specific individuals
III. Compute for the probability of having an affected offspring

A. Look at the family of IV-9 and IV-10. If the trait is dominant, is it possible for them to have an affected
offspring?
(Answer: NO. If the trait is dominant, then unaffected individuals are homozygous recessive. Two
recessive individuals CANNOT produce a dominant offspring.)
B. If the trait is recessive, is it also possible for IV-9 and IV-10 to have an unaffected offspring?
(Answer: YES. This can happen if both parents are heterozygous for the trait, which means they can
each give a recessive allele to produce a homozygous recessive offspring.)
C. Based on your answers for a) and b), is the trait dominant or recessive?
(Answer: RECESSIVE)

D. Give the genotypes of the following:

i. IV-9 (Answer: Dd)
ii. IV-10 (Answer: Dd)
iii. V-1 (Answer: DD or Dd)
iv. I-1 (Answer: dd)
v. I-2 (Answer: Dd)
E. If IV-9 and IV-10 were to have another child, what is the probability that they will have an affected
offspring?
(Answer: 1/4 or 25% following the Mendelian ratio from a hybrid cross)

Types of Inheritance Patterns:

1. Autosomal Dominant Inheritance:

Characteristics:
- Affected individuals appear in every generation.
- Affected offspring usually have at least one affected parent.
- Affected males and females are equally likely to inherit the trait.
- The trait doesn’t skip generations.

Example: Imagine a family where the trait is having attached earlobes (dominant). If a parent has attached
earlobes, there’s a high chance their child will too.

2. Autosomal Recessive Inheritance:

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 Characteristics:
– Affected individuals may skip generations.
– Affected individuals often have unaffected parents who are carriers (carrying one copy of the recessive
allele).
– Affected males and females are equally likely to inherit the trait.
– Often, the trait appears more frequently in consanguineous (related) marriages.

Example: Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder. Both parents must carry the recessive allele for their
child to have the disease.

3. X-linked Recessive Inheritance:

Characteristics:

- More males are affected than females.

- Affected sons usually have unaffected parents (mother is a carrier).
- Affected daughters usually have an affected father and a carrier mother.
- The trait can skip generations.

Example: Hemophilia is an X-linked recessive disorder. A male only needs one copy of the affected gene on his X
chromosome to have the disease, while a female needs two copies.

Sex Linkage and Recombination

This lesson builds upon the foundation of pedigree analysis by exploring sex-linked inheritance and
recombination. Sex-linked traits are those located on the sex chromosomes (X and Y in humans). Recombination
or shuffling of genes/ alleles in Meiosis results to variation in the genome of gametes, the sperm cells and egg
cells. In any cell of the body (somatic), there are chromosome pairs. In humans, pair numbers 1-22 are the
autosomes or body chromosomes while the last (23rd) pair is the sex chromosome. Normal human females have
two X chromosomes and normal human males have one X chromosome and a Y chromosome; that is:

XX- female
XY- male
Sex-Linked Inheritance:

a. Sex Chromosomes: Humans have two sex chromosomes: XX (female) and XY (male). The X chromosome
is much larger than the Y chromosome and carries many more genes.
b. X-linked Traits: Genes located on the X chromosome are called X-linked genes. Because males only have
one X chromosome, they express any X-linked allele they inherit, whether it's dominant or recessive.
Females, with two X chromosomes, require two copies of a recessive allele to express an X-linked recessive
trait.
c. Y-linked Traits: Genes located on the Y chromosome are called Y-linked genes. These traits are only
passed from father to son, as only males possess a Y chromosome. Y-linked traits are relatively rare.

Examples:
X-linked recessive: Hemophilia (blood clotting disorder), red-green color blindness.
X-linked dominant: Less common than X-linked recessive traits; an example is certain forms of hypophosphatemia
(a disorder affecting phosphate levels in the blood).
Y-linked: Hairy ears (in some families), certain aspects of male sexual development.

Analyzing Sex-Linked Pedigrees:

Analyzing pedigrees involving sex-linked traits requires careful attention to the sex of the individuals. Observe the
pattern of inheritance in males and females to determine if a trait is X-linked or Y-linked. NOTE: X-linked recessive
traits are more common in males, while Y-linked traits are only found in males.

Recombination (Genetic Recombination):

Meiosis: During meiosis, homologous chromosomes (one from each parent) pair up and exchange genetic
material through a process called crossing over. This exchange creates new combinations of alleles on the
chromosomes.

NON-MENDELIAN GENETICS

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 Gregor Mendel’s laws of inheritance provide a fundamental framework for understanding how traits are
passed from one generation to the next. However, real-world inheritance patterns often deviate from Mendel’s
idealized ratios due to several factors. This lesson explores these modifications, explaining why observed ratios
sometimes differ from expected Mendelian ratios.

Factors Modifying Mendelian Ratios:

1. Incomplete Dominance: In incomplete dominance, neither allele is completely dominant over the other. The
heterozygote displays an intermediate phenotype.
Example: In snapdragons, a red flower (RR) crossed with a white flower (rr) produces pink flowers (Rr).
The F2 generation shows a 1:2:1 ratio (red:pink:white), not the 3:1 ratio predicted by Mendel.

2. Codominance: In codominance, both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote.

Example: In human blood types, the alleles for A and B are codominant. Individuals with genotype AB
have both A and B antigens on their red blood cells.

3. Multiple Alleles: Many genes have more than two alleles. This
expands the range of possible genotypes and phenotypes.
Example: Human blood type is determined by three alleles: I A,
B
I , and i. This leads to four blood types (A, B, AB, and O).

4. Pleiotropy: A single gene can affect multiple phenotypic traits.

Example: Sickle cell anemia is caused by a single gene
mutation, but it affects multiple systems in the body, including red blood
cells, blood vessels, and organs.

5. Epistasis: The expression of one gene can mask or modify the

expression of another gene.
Example: In Labrador retrievers, coat color is determined by
two genes. One gene determines pigment production (black or brown),
and another gene determines whether the pigment is deposited in the
fur. The second gene can mask the expression of the first gene, leading
to a yellow coat.

6. Polygenic Inheritance: Many traits are controlled by multiple

genes, each contributing a small effect. This results in continuous
variation. Example: Human height is influenced by many genes, leading
to a wide range of heights in the population.

7. Environmental Effects: The environment can influence the expression of genes. The same genotype can
produce different phenotypes depending on environmental conditions.
Example: Hydrangea flower color is affected by soil pH. The same genotype can produce pink flowers in
alkaline soil and blue flowers in acidic soil.

8. Sex-Linked Inheritance (Revisited): genes on the sex chromosomes (X and Y) show unique inheritance
patterns that deviate from Mendelian ratios.

Modifying Mendelian Ratios in Practice:

Consider a cross between two heterozygotes for a trait showing incomplete dominance. Instead of the
expected 3:1 Mendelian ratio, we observe a 1:2:1 ratio reflecting the intermediate phenotype of the heterozygotes.
Similarly, dihybrid crosses involving epistasis will produce ratios different from the classic 9:3:3:1 ratio.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Problem 1: Incomplete Dominance

In snapdragons, flower color exhibits incomplete dominance. Homozygous plants with genotype C RCR
have red flowers, homozygous plants with genotype C WCW have white flowers, and heterozygous plants with
genotype CR CW have pink flowers.
Question: If a red snapdragon is crossed with a white snapdragon, what are the expected genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of their offspring?

Parents: Red snapdragon (CRCR) x White snapdragon (CWCW)

Punnett Square:

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 CR CR

CW CR CW CR CW

CW CR CW CR CW

Problem 2: Genotypic Ratio: Phenotypic Ratio:

All offspring are CR CW Since CR CW results in pink flowers, all

Ratio: 1 CR CW offspring will be pink.
Ratio: 1 Pink

Codominance
In cattle, coat color is determined by codominance. Allele C R produces red hairs, and allele CW
produces white hairs. Heterozygous individuals (C R CW) have both red and white hairs, resulting in a roan coat (a
spotted or mottled appearance).
Question: If a roan cow is crossed with a roan bull, what are the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios of their
calves?

Parents: Roan cow (CR CW) x Roan bull (CR CW)

Punnett Square:

CR CW
CR CR CR CR CW
CW CR CW CW CW

Genotypic Ratio: Phenotypic Ratio:

1 CR CR: 2 CR CW: 1 CW CW 1 Red: 2 Roan: 1 White

Ratio: 1: 2: 1 Ratio: 1: 2: 1