Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/computers-and-education-artificial-intelligence

Exploring the potential of generative AI in democratizing English

language education
Dara Tafazoli
School of Education, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study investigates the transformative potential of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI), particularly
Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) ChatGPT, in addressing educational challenges faced by Iranian English language teachers (N = 23). Drawing on
ChatGPT qualitative data from focus group sessions, semi-structured interviews, and reflective essays, the study reveals
Educational challenges
five key themes: accessible learning materials, personalized learning experiences, addressing ideological in-
English language teachers
Qualitative study
fluences, overcoming technological barriers, and combating isolation from global trends. The findings highlight
GenAI’s capacity to provide diverse and up-to-date learning materials tailored to individual learners’ needs,
address ideological biases, and facilitate cross-cultural communication. Moreover, GenAI offers personalized
professional development opportunities for teachers, bridging the digital divide and empowering teachers with
diverse levels of digital literacy. By integrating GenAI into English language instruction, teachers can overcome
longstanding challenges, foster critical thinking, and promote intellectual freedom and open-mindedness among
students. The study demonstrates GenAI’s potential to promote inclusive education by providing tailored
learning experiences that accommodate diverse cultural backgrounds and learning needs.

1. Introduction facilitating reading, writing, and language acquisition (Tseng & War-
schauer, 2023). Through interactions with AI-generated content, stu-
The emergence of large language models (LLMs), particularly dents can enhance their vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension
generative artificial intelligence (hereafter GenAI) systems like ChatGPT skills, contributing to overall language proficiency (Lee et al., 2023).
(Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer), has significantly trans- Furthermore, GenAI can personalize learning experiences by analyzing
formed human-computer interaction and educational practices learners’ interactions and adjusting content and exercises to their pro-
(Bewersdorff et al., 2023). These advanced models, fueled by sophisti- ficiency level, learning style, and interests, thereby providing tailored
cated machine learning algorithms, exhibit remarkable fluency and recommendations and feedback in real-time (Carlson et al., 2023; Kas-
coherence in understanding, generating, and manipulating human lan- neci et al., 2023). Additionally, GenAI models can function as virtual
guage (Essel et al., 2024; Jeon & Lee, 2023). GenAI, a class of artificial tutors or language assistants, offering on-demand support, explanations,
intelligence systems capable of generating novel and coherent output and guidance to learners. Chatbots powered by AI, such as ChatGPT,
based on input data and learned patterns, represents a departure from simulate natural language interactions, enabling students to engage in
traditional rule-based systems or simple pattern recognition algorithms conversation, seek clarification, and practice language skills (Ulla et al.,
(Bannister et al., 2023). Leveraging deep learning techniques, particu- 2023).
larly neural networks, these models are trained on extensive text data to However, alongside the opportunities presented by GenAI in lan-
grasp the underlying structure and semantics of language, enabling guage education, there exist notable challenges and considerations (see
them to produce contextually relevant and grammatically correct output Kohnke et al., 2023). AI-generated content may inadvertently perpet-
(Hsu & Ching, 2023). uate biases or stereotypes present in the training data (Alm & Watanabe,
The potential of GenAI, especially exemplified by ChatGPT, extends 2023), necessitating vigilance in assessing and addressing ethical con-
to various facets of language education (see Kohnke et al., 2023). cerns (Jeon & Lee, 2023), and ensuring that AI-generated materials
Generative AI models offer extensive opportunities for language practice promote diversity, inclusion, and cultural sensitivity (Kasneci et al.,
by generating vast amounts of text in natural language, thereby 2023). Moreover, the accuracy and reliability of AI-generated materials

E-mail address: [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100275
Received 25 March 2024; Received in revised form 1 July 2024; Accepted 29 July 2024
Available online 6 August 2024
2666-920X/© 2024 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

may vary (Lee et al., 2023), warranting validation and quality assurance (2024) argue that without sufficient training and support, teachers may
measures (Bonner et al., 2023). Privacy and security concerns regarding struggle to utilize AI tools to their full potential. Addressing this gap
student data and interactions also emerge with the adoption of GenAI in requires comprehensive professional development programs focused on
education, highlighting the importance of stringent privacy protocols AI literacy and pedagogical innovation.
(Kasneci et al., 2023). Despite all affordances, the integration of GenAI in language edu-
While numerous studies have explored the impact of GenAI on lan- cation faces numerous challenges, including inadequate infrastructure
guage education, there remains a scarcity of research specifically (Demir & Kayaoğlu, 2022) and insufficient technological resources
addressing the integration of this technology in resource-constrained (Dashtestani & Hojatpanah, 2022; Taghizadeh & Ejtehadi, 2023).
environments. Existing literature often focuses on well-resourced set- Additionally, there is difficulty in accessing suitable
tings, leaving a significant gap in understanding how GenAI can be technology-enhanced materials (Rachmawati et al., 2022) and cultural
leveraged in contexts facing infrastructural and socio-political chal- resistance to new technologies (Tafazoli, 2021). Strategic hurdles
lenges, such as Iran. This study aims to bridge this gap by examining the related to educational policies and decision-making processes further
potential of GenAI to enhance English language education in Iran, a complicate the integration of AI in education (Dashtestani & Hojatpa-
context marked by unique obstacles that hinder the effective imple- nah, 2022; Novita et al., 2022). Syllabus and curricular constraints
mentation of technology in education, as elucidated in the subsequent (Gruba & Chau Nguyen, 2019; Meihami, 2021), as well as the
section. complexity of lesson preparation (Zimmer & Matthews, 2022), also pose
significant barriers. Insufficient teacher training (Al-khresheh, 2024;
2. Literature review Eren, 2023) exacerbates these challenges, highlighting the need for
robust support systems and policy frameworks to facilitate the effective
2.1. The affordances and challenges of GenAI in language education use of AI in education.
The integration of GenAI in language education presents both sig-
The integration of GenAI in language education has the potential to nificant opportunities and challenges. While AI has the potential to
transform traditional teaching methodologies, providing innovative revolutionize curriculum design, enhance student engagement, and
solutions for content creation, translation, and pedagogical strategies. introduce innovative pedagogical methods, there are substantial hurdles
This literature review critically analyzes the contributions and limita- to overcome in terms of infrastructure, resources, cultural acceptance,
tions of various studies on the role of GenAI in language education, and teacher training. Future research should focus on addressing these
focusing on its impact on curriculum design, student engagement, challenges, providing empirical evidence on the impacts of AI integra-
pedagogical innovation, and the challenges faced in technology tion, and developing strategies to support teachers in leveraging AI
integration. technologies effectively.
The use of GenAI in generating educational content, including lesson
plans, quizzes, and interactive exercises, has been widely recognized for 2.2. Technology integration into English language education: the Curious
its potential to enrich curriculum design. Alm and Watanabe (2023) and case of Iran
McCallum (2024) highlight how AI-generated content can foster student
engagement and cultivate critical thinking skills. These studies under- Iran, a nation steeped in historical richness and intellectual heritage,
score the capacity of AI to create diverse and adaptive learning materials has navigated a complex interplay of policies over the years, with
tailored to individual student needs, thus enhancing the educational diplomatic decisions and international relations resonating deeply
experience. Bonner et al. (2023) further emphasize the role of GenAI in within its educational realm. To grasp the contemporary challenges
fostering intercultural communicative competence, which is crucial in a confronting the Iranian education system within the policy context, an
globalized educational context. However, a critical gap in these studies exploration of its historical underpinnings becomes imperative. While
is the lack of empirical data on the impact of AI-generated content on Iran boasts a longstanding tradition of scholarship and learning dating
student outcomes. While the theoretical benefits are well-articulated, back to ancient times, the modern education system began taking shape
there is a need for empirical studies to assess the effectiveness and in the early 20th century with endeavors to formalize schooling and
sustainability of AI-driven curriculum enhancements. promote literacy. However, following the Islamic Revolution of 1979,
GenAI models with multilingual capabilities offer significant ad- significant transformations swept through the education landscape,
vantages in language translation and localization, aiding students in marked by a pronounced emphasis on Islamic principles, values, and
accessing educational materials in their native languages and improving Iranian Revolutionism (Mirhosseini & Miryouness Haghi, 2023).
foreign language acquisition. Li et al. (2023) illustrate how AI can bridge Among the domains profoundly influenced by these shifts is English
linguistic barriers, making education more inclusive and accessible. This language education (Chamani, 2023). In an increasingly globalized
is particularly beneficial in multilingual classrooms, where students can world, English proficiency emerges as a coveted skill, bearing implica-
learn in their preferred language without compromising on the quality tions for economic opportunities, international relations, and cultural
of education. Despite these advantages, there are challenges related to exchange (Kramsch, 2014). English language instruction has long been
the accuracy and cultural sensitivity of AI translations. The nuances of integral to the Iranian education system, evolving over time in response
language and cultural contexts are often lost in machine translations, to political dynamics, educational reforms, and shifting societal atti-
which can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Future tudes towards foreign languages post-Islamic revolution (Hosseini
research should focus on improving the cultural competency of AI Goodrich, 2020).
models to better serve diverse student populations. However, English language education in Iran grapples with a myriad
The application of GenAI in innovative pedagogical methods, such as of challenges, chief among them being the impact of politico-economic
gamification and storytelling, has been shown to enhance student in- sanctions imposed by the United States and other Western nations
terest and engagement. Studies (Godwin-Jones, 2023; Jeon & Lee, 2023; (Mehrabi, 2014). These sanctions, often motivated by political tensions
Kasneci et al., 2023) demonstrate how these approaches can facilitate surrounding Iran’s nuclear program and regional policies, severely
active participation and knowledge retention. GenAI enables the crea- impede Iran’s access to educational resources, including English lan-
tion of dynamic and interactive learning environments that cater to guage textbooks, teaching materials, and language learning software
various learning styles and preferences. Nonetheless, the implementa- (Konuralp & Topping, 2023). Consequently, teachers confront limita-
tion of these methods is not without challenges. There is a significant tions in delivering up-to-date and comprehensive English language in-
gap in teacher training and preparedness to effectively integrate these struction, contributing to gaps in students’ knowledge and skills.
technologies into their teaching practices. Moorhouse and Kohnke Moreover, Iran’s policies impede opportunities for international

2
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

collaboration and exchange programs in English language education, harnessed to improve educational outcomes and bridge existing gaps in
restricting partnerships with foreign institutions and hindering resource-limited settings.
cross-cultural engagement (Hwami, 2022).
The ideological underpinnings of the Iranian government further 3. Methods
shape the landscape of English language education, influencing curric-
ulum selection, course content, and teaching methodologies. Political 3.1. Research design
considerations dictate the portrayal of Western culture and values in
English language materials, reflecting the state’s desired narrative and Creswell (2012) characterizes qualitative research as an educational
worldview (Tafazoli & Egan, 2022). This intersection of policy and inquiry reliant on participants’ perspectives, employing open-ended
pedagogy fuels broader debates about language policy and national questions, gathering textual data, identifying themes, and adopting a
identity within Iran (Mazlum, 2022), with English language education subjective stance. Among various qualitative research approaches, the
emerging as a conduit for global engagement while simultaneously case study method was considered most suitable for this study. Ac-
eliciting concerns about the potential erosion of Persian language and cording to Yin (2018), a case study is an empirical research method that
culture amidst globalization and Western influence (Tafazoli & Egan, delves deeply into a specific issue or phenomenon within its real-world
2022). context, particularly when the distinction between the phenomenon and
Despite these formidable challenges, recent years have witnessed a its context is blurred. Given the research question’s focus on GenAI
technological revolution in language education, offering a ray of hope integration into language education, the case study approach was
amidst adversity. Particularly pertinent in the Iranian context, where deemed appropriate. Fig. 1 illustrates the stages of the study.
resource constraints traditionally hinder access to learning opportu-
nities, technology presents novel avenues for learning, collaboration, 3.2. Webinar, sampling technique and participants
and skill development. While numerous studies have explored innova-
tive technological interventions in developing language learners’ skills, To address the need for teachers’ professional development and to
including computer-mediated collaborative writing (Ebadijalal & Mor- enhance their Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) compe-
adkhani, 2023; Khezrlou, 2024), mobile-mediated dynamic assessment tencies, the researcher was invited by a higher education institution to
(Rassaei, 2023), computerized dynamic assessment (Kargar Behbahani conduct a series of webinars for Iranian language teachers. The webinar
& Karimpour, 2024), technology-mediated vocabulary teaching focused on the theme of ‘Artificial Intelligence Advancements in Lan-
(Rohollahzadeh Ebadi, 2023), interaction-embedded and guage Education,’ which serves as the primary focus of the current
interaction-reduced modes of fully online flipped instruction (Shabani & study. Conducted via Zoom, the webinar utilized various tools, including
Jabbari, 2023), augmented reality game-supported flipped classrooms Focusky and multimedia resources, to foster interaction with partici-
(Khazaie & Ebadi, 2023), digital gamification (Foroutan Far & Taghi- pants and improve the quality of instruction. The webinar comprised
zadeh, 2022), electronic writing portfolio (Fathi & Rahimi, 2022), dig- multiple sections covering topics such as the evolution of AI in language
ital storytelling (Zarei & Navidinia, 2024), computer-mediated education, fundamental AI concepts, critiques of AI, practical applica-
corrective feedback (Estaji & Tahamtani, 2023), only one paper tions of AI in language education, and dedicated Q&A sessions. Table 1
explored the affordances of GenAI for such a context. Ghafouri’s (2024) outlines the specific contents addressed during the webinar.
study, focusing on the effects of a ChatGPT-based rapport-building In accordance with Czarniawska (2004), purposeful sampling was
protocol on teacher-student rapport and L2 grit, offers a rare glimpse employed to select participants who would best represent the population
into the potential of GenAI to enhance language education. However, a of interest. Criteria for participant selection included: (1) being an En-
dearth of literature specifically examining how language teachers in glish language teacher, (2) voluntary participation in the study, and (3)
contexts like Iran can leverage GenAI to navigate their educational possessing a minimum of two years of teaching experience during the
challenges persists. data collection period. The researcher sent invitation emails to
The scarcity of literature investigating the potential of GenAI within approximately 200 language teachers who had previously attended
contexts such as Iran, marked by a multitude of challenges within the CALL workshops and/or webinars. Of these, 73 English as a Foreign
education system, underscores a notable gap in our comprehension of Language (EFL) teachers completed expression of interest forms, with 23
leveraging emerging technologies to meet crucial educational demands. high school teachers ultimately participating in the webinar under
Existing studies predominantly focus on the integration of GenAI in well- study. Prior to commencement, all participants received detailed in-
resourced settings where infrastructure, access to technology, and formation about the study and provided informed consent for their
educational resources are abundant. However, there is a limited un- participation and for the publication of results. Furthermore, each of the
derstanding of how GenAI can be effectively utilized in under-resourced 23 EFL teachers agreed to participate voluntarily, a number deemed
and socio-politically constrained environments like Iran. In a nation suitable for qualitative research purposes (Lichtman, 2013). These
where economic sanctions, limited resources, and ideological factors teachers were selected to offer rich and insightful data pertaining to the
significantly mold the educational milieu, English language teachers central focus of the study. Demographic information, including age,
encounter formidable and unique obstacles in delivering high-quality gender, teaching experience, and highest qualification, was collected,
instruction to their students. Acknowledging this void in scholarly categorized, and presented in Table 2.
exploration and recognizing the potential of GenAI to alleviate teachers’
challenges in Iran, this qualitative study, therefore, addresses the 3.3. Data collection and analysis
following research question:
Salmons (2014) proposes that employing multiple methods for data
How can Iranian English language teachers benefit from GenAI to collection can enhance the credibility and reliability of research findings
tackle their educational challenges? by facilitating result validation. This case study incorporated three data
collection instruments: semi-structured interviews, focus group sessions,
Through this research, the researcher aims to contribute to the and reflective essays (refer to Fig. 2). Potential biases included partici-
broader understanding of GenAI’s potential in diverse educational pant self-selection and the researcher’s role in webinar facilitation,
contexts and offers recommendations for teachers operating in similarly which could influence responses. To mitigate biases, transparency in
constrained environments. By addressing the specific challenges and participant selection, varied data collection methods, and rigorous
opportunities present in the Iranian education system, this study seeks to thematic analysis were employed. Cross-case comparisons and member
provide a comprehensive analysis of how emerging technologies can be checking enhanced transferability, while inter-coder agreement ensured

3
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

Fig. 1. The stages of the study.

the dependability of findings (Bergen & Labonté, 2020; van Berkel et al., • What resources or support do you currently lack in your efforts to
2020). The following sections offer additional insights into these tools. overcome these educational challenges?
• Are there any concerns or reservations you have about incorporating
3.3.1. Focus group sessions AI technologies into your teaching practices?
I gathered data to explore teachers’ perceptions of GenAI through
voluntary participation in focus group sessions. While no coercion was 3.3.2. Semi-structured interviews
applied to compel participation, all 23 teachers willingly took part in the The use of semi-structured interviews involves a combination of
focus group discussions (n = 23) following each webinar session. These predetermined core questions and spontaneous inquiries that emerge
oral group interviews, lasting approximately 20–30 min, were con- during the conversation. This method offers a degree of structure while
ducted after the completion of each segment of the webinar. Subse- allowing flexibility for probing and eliciting additional information.
quently, the sessions were transcribed, coded, and analyzed. Each focus Widely utilized in qualitative research, semi-structured interviews
group session involved the presentation of approximately five questions enable interviewers to pose follow-up questions based on participants’
informed by the literature that were modified by the researcher to fall responses, fostering deeper exploration of the topic.
within the context of the study, all directly related to the content For this study, semi-structured interviews were selected as the most
covered during the sessions. Teachers had the opportunity to select the suitable data collection method. Core questions were supplemented with
questions they wished to respond to, with subsequent feedback provided sub-questions and probes to ensure comprehensive coverage of the
by other focus group members. Below you can find some of the research objectives. Following the conclusion of the webinar, partici-
questions: pants engaged in individual semi-structured interviews (n = 10). Con-
ducting one-on-one interviews allowed the researcher to delve deeply
• What are the most challenges you encounter as English language into each participant’s perspectives, experiences, and suggestions
teachers in Iran’s educational context? without external influences such as peer pressure (Orvik et al., 2013).
• How do these challenges impact your ability to effectively teach This approach enables the collection of nuanced insights into partici-
English to your students? pants’ learning experiences, encountered challenges, and identified
• Have you encountered any specific difficulties in teaching English areas requiring additional support or resources.
that you believe are unique to the Iranian educational system or Each interview session lasted approximately 45–60 min and was
cultural context? recorded for transcription purposes. Given that both the interviewer (the
• In what ways do you think technology, particularly AI, could address researcher) and the participants share Persian (or Farsi) as their native
or alleviate some of these challenges? language, all ten interviews were conducted in Persian to ensure clarity
of communication. Probes such as “Could you elaborate on your

4
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

Table 1 Table 2
Webinar details. EFL teachers’ demographic information.
Session Duration Main Topic Sub-topics N = 23 %

1 120 min. Introduction - Welcome and introduction to the Gender

webinar Male 8 35%
- Brief overview of the importance Female 15 65%
of technological-pedagogical Age
awareness in language teaching 20-24 1 4.3%
- Introduction to the role of AI in 25-29 4 17.5%
language education 30-34 4 17.5%
35-39 5 21.7%
Understanding AI in -Explaining the concept of AI and
40-44 8 34.7%
Language Teaching its applications in language
45+ 1 4.3%
education
Teaching experience
- Discussing the benefits and
1–5 years 15 65.2%
challenges of integrating AI in
6–11 years 5 21.8%
language teaching
12–17 years 2 8.7%
- Providing examples of AI tools
18–23 years 1 4.3%
and technologies used in
Academic degree
language classrooms
MA student 5 21.7%
2 120 min. Enhancing - Explaining how AI can support MA 9 39.3%
Pedagogical Skills language teachers in developing PhD student 8 34.7%
through AI their pedagogical skills PhD 1 4.3%
- Discussing AI-based tools and
platforms that can assist teachers
in lesson planning, assessment, • What support or resources do you feel you would need to effectively
and personalized learning integrate AI into your teaching practice? How?
- Sharing success stories and best
practices of language teachers
who have utilized AI in their 3.3.3. Reflective essays
classrooms The researcher also requested participants to write reflective essays
Ethical - Addressing ethical concerns two weeks after the webinar. This delay allowed participants to
Considerations and related to AI in language contemplate the topic of GenAI further and apply their insights within
Challenges teaching their teaching contexts. Although the essays provided guiding questions,
- Discussing the importance of participants had the freedom to respond to the prompts as extensively or
data privacy and security when
using AI tools
succinctly as they wished.
Ten participants (n = 10) emailed their reflected essays to the
3 120 min. Interactive - Live demonstration of using
researcher. The researcher chose to utilize a comprehensive set of
Demonstration ChatGPT in language teaching
- Engaging participants in hands- prompts for the reflective essays, encompassing all aspects of the course
on activities to experience material rather than solely focusing on specific AI content. Participants
ChatGPT language learning were encouraged to share their experiences with ChatGPT utilized
firsthand during the webinar. Specific questions pertaining to GenAI included:
Q&A Session - Providing an opportunity for
teachers to ask questions and • Describe any key insights or new perspectives you gained regarding
seek clarification on any aspect
the role of GenAI in addressing educational challenges for Iranian
of AI in language teaching
- Addressing common concerns English language teachers.
and queries raised by • Reflect on any specific strategies, tools, or approaches discussed
participants during the workshop that you found particularly intriguing or rele-
Closing Remarks - Summarizing the key takeaways vant to your teaching context.
from the webinar • Consider the challenges discussed during the workshop. How do you
- Expressing gratitude to the envision incorporating AI technologies to overcome these challenges
participants for their active
in your own teaching practice?
engagement
- Asking participants to share their • Discuss any concerns or reservations you may have regarding the
experiences through reflective integration of GenAI into English language teaching, and how you
essays after two weeks for further plan to address or mitigate them.
exploration • How do you anticipate the knowledge and skills gained from this
workshop will impact your teaching approach moving forward?
response?” or “Tell me more … ” were utilized to encourage participants • Reflect on any personal growth or professional development you
to provide detailed responses (Creswell, 2012, p. 221). Some of the experienced as a result of participating in this workshop.
questions were:
These prompts aimed to elicit participants’ reflections on their ex-
• Can you elaborate on the specific challenges you mentioned earlier periences with GenAI and how they plan to integrate it into their
regarding English language teaching in Iran? teaching practice to address challenges.
• Can you provide examples of situations where these challenges have Thematic analysis, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) framework,
posed significant obstacles in your career? was utilized to analyze data collected from three sources (i.e., focus
• In what ways do you envision AI technologies could assist you in group sessions, semi-structured interviews, and reflective essays). Spe-
overcoming these challenges? cifically, inductive thematic analysis was employed, involving deriving
• Tell me if there any particular AI-driven solutions or tools you’ve meaning and identifying patterns from raw data without preconceived
come across in the webinar that you believe could be beneficial in notions. This method ensures an objective analysis without anticipation
your teaching context? of results, prioritizing participants’ perspectives over the researcher’s

5
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

Fig. 2. Stages of data collection.

(Braun & Clarke, 2006). intentions. Two research assistants identified common themes and
NVivo 12 software facilitated thematic analysis following Braun and created example lists, evaluating frequency both quantitatively and
Clarke’s (2006) phases. Data thematization involved multiple recursive qualitatively. A panel consensus on final themes was reached, followed
phases, with the researcher rereading data inputted into NVivo 12 by modifications, deletions, and combinations based on expert input. A
during the initial phase. The second phase entailed organizing data from comprehensive thematic map was created using NVivo 12 in the fourth
initial concepts and uncovering implicit extracts inferred from relevant phase. Consistency across all data sets was ensured by checking obtained
literature. In the third phase, initial codes were grouped into potential themes, with renaming based on interesting words or phrases in teach-
themes using software to create potential parent codes and themes. ers’ data. In the sixth phase, vivid examples of extracts were selected for
Discussion with experts ensured accurate representation of participants’ inclusion in the Findings section.

6
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

The researcher focused on three elements of rigor to ensure the rigor 4.2. Personalized learning experiences
of the findings: credibility, transferability, and dependability (Ary et al.,
2014). To enhance credibility, the peer debriefing technique was Personalization in professional development (PD) is crucial for En-
employed. Two research assistants specializing in applied linguistics glish language teachers in Iran, especially considering the challenge of
reviewed segments of the data to verify the consistency of identified limited access to suitable PD courses. Many teachers in Iran face diffi-
themes. Additionally, member checking was conducted to validate culties finding PD opportunities that align with their interests, teaching
themes with all participants, strengthening the thematization process. contexts, and professional goals. Traditional PD programs may not al-
For addressing transferability, cross-case comparison was employed. ways cater to the diverse needs and preferences of teachers, leading to
Participants with diverse educational backgrounds and teaching expe- disengagement and a lack of motivation to participate. A teacher shared:
riences from different regions of Iran were included to enhance the
I’ve been teaching English for a while now, but it’s been hard to find
generalizability of the findings. To ensure dependability, inter-coder
courses that actually help me teach my students in Iran. Most of the
agreement was evaluated. Another coder assisted in coding 18% of the
courses I’ve found are either too general or not applicable to my
data, resulting in an 87% inter-coder agreement.
classroom. Not being able to find the right professional development
opportunities has made me feel pretty demotivated and frustrated.
4. Findings
(Interview)

The data analysis identified five main themes from the focus groups, GenAI offers a solution to the challenge of limited access to suitable
interviews, and reflective essays, illustrating how GenAI, such as PD courses by providing personalized professional development expe-
ChatGPT, can assist English language teachers in addressing their riences tailored to the individual needs and interests of English language
educational challenges. These themes include: 1. Accessible learning teachers in Iran. Through advanced algorithms and natural language
materials, 2. Personalized learning experiences, 3. Addressing ideolog- processing, GenAI can analyze teachers’ preferences, teaching contexts,
ical influences, 4. Overcoming technological barriers, and 5. Combating and professional goals to curate personalized PD courses that address
isolation from global trends. their specific needs. These courses can cover a wide range of topics,
It is important to note that while participants discussed various including language teaching methodologies, classroom management
challenges encountered during their preparation, this study did not strategies, assessment practices, and technology integration. A teacher
focus on these challenges, and therefore they were not included in the explained, “I have used ChatGPT as a personalized tutoring system to pro-
findings. Additionally, findings related to teachers’ professional devel- vide me with individualized feedback and support based on my needs and
opment have been reported in another study conducted by the questions. This has helped me to meet my specific needs and promote my
researcher and a colleague, due to the purpose of the current study. academic and professional growth” (Reflective essay).

4.1. Accessible learning materials 4.3. Addressing ideological influences

Access to diverse and relevant learning materials is crucial for English language education in Iran can be influenced by ideological
effective English language instruction in Iran. Participants highlighted biases, limiting exposure to diverse perspectives and content. Partici-
the scarcity of up-to-date resources and the challenges of obtaining pants acknowledged the importance of fostering critical thinking and
materials that cater to the specific needs of their students. One partici- open-mindedness among their students by exposing them to a variety of
pant expressed, viewpoints. A teacher stated, “There’s often a tendency to promote certain
ideological narratives in English language education. However, as teachers,
It can be challenging to find English language materials that are both it’s crucial for us to encourage critical thinking and expose our students to
up-to-date and relevant to the interests of our students. Many text- diverse perspectives” (Interview).
books are outdated, and supplementary materials can be costly and GenAI was seen as a neutral tool that could help mitigate ideological
difficult to obtain. As such, we should always make an effort to seek influences by offering access to a wide range of materials from different
out the most current and engaging resources to enhance our stu- cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Teachers reflected,
dents’ learning experience. (Focus group session)
It’s important for us to be aware of any ideological biases in our
Integrating GenAI can address these challenges by providing a vast curriculum. GenAI has been a valuable resource in addressing this
array of resources that can be easily accessed online. Teachers appre- issue. Rather than relying solely on textbooks which may contain
ciated the convenience of having a centralized platform where they biased content, we can use AI-generated materials to introduce
could find materials tailored to different proficiency levels and topics. diverse perspectives and critical thinking exercises into our lessons.
Another teacher agreed with this sentiment by stating, (Focus group session)
Yeah, I totally agree! GenAI can be a real game-changer for us when Exploring diverse viewpoints can be a challenging task, but thanks to
it comes to providing accessible learning materials to our students. technology, we have new avenues to explore. Personally, I’ve
With ChatGPT, we can make all sorts of cool quizzes, exercises, and discovered that incorporating ChatGPT’s student discussion chat has
tasks that cater to different learning styles and preferences. The best been highly beneficial. By facilitating online dialogues on sensitive
part is that these materials are adaptable and can be customized to subjects, students are able to encounter a wide spectrum of opinions
suit each student’s needs. This means we can offer a more person- and perspectives. This approach fosters critical thinking and enables
alized learning experience and make sure everyone has access to top- them to form their own unique outlooks. It’s a subtle yet effective
quality educational resources. (Focus group session) technique that helps to challenge ideological biases while promoting
Another teacher mentioned: intellectual liberty in our educational endeavors. (Reflective essay)

I have utilized ChatGPT to create valuable resources that have

enriched the curriculum. Specifically, I have developed supplemen- 4.4. Overcoming technological barriers
tary reading materials and vocabulary enhancement exercises that
are accessible online. This means that all students, regardless of their English language teachers in Iran encounter obstacles related to the
access to physical textbooks, can benefit from these resources. availability of up-to-date technologies and their proficiency in using
(Reflective essay) digital tools effectively. Many teachers have limited access to modern

7
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

technologies due to financial constraints and infrastructure limitations. ideas can greatly expand my outlook and enhance my teaching
Additionally, a significant portion of teachers may lack the necessary methodology, enabling me to integrate international perspectives
digital literacy skills to leverage technology effectively in their teaching into my lessons and stay current with the latest advancements in
practice. This lack of access and digital literacy poses challenges for English language education. (Reflective essay)
integrating educational technologies into English language instruction
and inhibits teachers’ ability to keep pace with advancements in the
5. Discussion
field. A teacher noted, “I’ve always felt overwhelmed by the prospect of
integrating technology into my classroom. Many of the tools available require
This study explored how Iranian English language teachers can
expensive hardware or technical expertise that I simply don’t have”
leverage GenAI to address educational challenges. In both the findings
(Interview).
and the literature, there is a consensus regarding the importance of
GenAI offers a solution to the challenge of technological barriers by
accessible learning materials in language education (see Meirbekov
providing a user-friendly platform that does not require high-tech
et al., 2023). Iranian teachers highlighted the persistent challenges of
infrastructure or advanced digital literacy skills. Unlike some educa-
source scarcity, which GenAI can potentially alleviate by generating
tional technologies that demand extensive technical expertise or
tailored learning materials that cater to diverse learning styles and in-
specialized hardware, GenAI can be accessed through standard internet
terests (Carlson et al., 2023; Kasneci et al., 2023). However, ethical
browsers on a wide range of devices, including smartphones, tablets, and
concerns regarding bias in AI-generated content and the need for robust
desktop computers. Moreover, GenAI’s intuitive interface and guided
validation processes to ensure accuracy and cultural sensitivity remain
tutorials make it accessible to teachers with varying levels of digital
critical considerations (Alm & Watanabe, 2023).
literacy, empowering them to integrate AI-powered tools into their
Moreover, while the existing literature predominantly focuses on the
teaching practice with confidence. A teacher shared:
benefits of personalized learning experiences for students, the partici-
At first, I was a bit wary of using AI because I’m not really good with pants’ recognition of the importance of personalized PD for teachers
technology. But after trying out ChatGPT, I realized it’s actually adds a novel dimension to the discussion. The challenges faced by Ira-
pretty easy to use. With a little bit of practice and some help from my nian English language teachers in accessing suitable PD opportunities
colleagues, I feel confident about using GenAI in my lessons. (Focus resonate with broader issues of PD in other contexts even with suitable
group session) resources and infrastructure (see Eren, 2023; Moorhouse & Kohnke,
2024). Participants’ positive experiences with using GenAI for person-
alized tutoring also highlight the practical implications of integrating AI
4.5. Combating isolation from global trends
into PD initiatives, aligning with the literature’s emphasis on the role of
AI in supporting professional growth and development (see Kasneci
The Iranian government’s diplomatic policies restrict access to in-
et al., 2023; Ulla et al., 2023).
ternational communication channels, limiting opportunities for English
The existing literature emphasizes the role of GenAI in providing
language teachers and students to engage with peers and experts from
access to diverse cultural and linguistic perspectives (see Kasneci et al.,
other countries. This isolation hinders their ability to participate in
2023), yet it often overlooks its potential to address ideological biases
global educational communities, collaborate with international col-
within educational content. The study reveals that Iranian teachers
leagues, and access resources and insights from around the world. As a
perceive GenAI as a means to mitigate ideological influences in navi-
result, teachers may feel disconnected from global educational trends
gating ideological influences in English language education, fostering
and struggle to stay updated on the latest developments in English
critical thinking and intellectual independence. This underscores Gen-
language education. A teacher reflected: “As English language teachers in
AI’s transformative potential in challenging socio-political contexts
Iran, we sometimes feel disconnected from global trends in education”
where curriculum content may be subject to ideological scrutiny.
(Interview). Another teacher also included “living and teaching in Iran,
Technological barriers, identified in both the literature and the
it’s easy to feel separated from the global education community” (Focus
study, such as inadequate digital infrastructure and varying levels of
group session).
digital literacy among teachers, underscore the need for targeted in-
GenAI offers a solution to the challenge of restricted communication
terventions to support technology integration in education (Al-khre-
channels by providing English language teachers and students in Iran
sheh, 2024; Dashtestani & Hojatpanah, 2022). GenAI’s ability to bridge
with access to simulated conversations with people from diverse back-
these digital divides is evident in the findings, suggesting it can facilitate
grounds and proficiency levels. Through tools such as ChatGPT, teachers
the effective integration of technology into English language instruction
and students can engage in meaningful and real-world conversations,
in Iran, thereby enhancing educational outcomes (Dashtestani &
practicing language skills in authentic contexts and gaining exposure to
Hojatpanah, 2022).
different cultural perspectives and linguistic varieties. This simulation
Furthermore, the finding regarding combating isolation from global
fosters cross-cultural understanding, promotes language proficiency,
trends echoes existing literature emphasizing the importance of inter-
and enables teachers and students to feel connected with global
national collaboration and cross-cultural exchange in enriching English
educational trends despite the restrictions imposed by government di-
language education (Hwami, 2022; Kramsch, 2014). The challenges
plomacy. A teacher explained,
encountered by Iranian English language teachers in accessing global
With GenAI, I can engage in simulated conversations with people educational communities and staying abreast of international trends
from around the world, allowing me to practice my language skills reflect broader discussions on the influence of geopolitical factors on
and stay updated on the latest trends and practices in English lan- education. Moreover, the participants’ acknowledgment of GenAI as a
guage education. This channel of communication would be invalu- tool for simulating conversations with individuals from diverse back-
able in expanding my horizons and getting familiar with people from grounds aligns with literature highlighting the potential of AI to facili-
diverse backgrounds. (Interview) tate cross-cultural communication and collaboration in educational
settings (McCallum, 2024).
Through the use of different prompts available on ChatGPT, I select
The current study’s findings are in line with several educational
individuals with whom I wish to engage in conversation about
theories and pedagogical approaches. Vygotsky’s (1978) Social
various topics and issues. Despite the fact that it is not a physical
Constructivism highlights the importance of interaction and collabora-
conversation, I often find myself immersed in a profound discussion
tion in learning. Platforms like ChatGPT, powered by GenAI, can
with colleagues and specialists from around the globe, sharing ideas,
encourage learner-centered dialogues and collaborative learning
and gaining insights from their experiences. This virtual exchange of

8
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

experiences to develop higher-order thinking skills and create an learning environments. Finally, recognizing the diversity of educational
interactive and engaging learning environment. Additionally, the use of contexts, teachers should adapt GenAI applications to local needs, re-
GenAI aligns with the principles of Differentiated Instruction (Tomlin- sources, and cultural sensitivities. Customizing AI tools to align with
son, 2001), which focuses on tailoring instruction to meet diverse regional languages, cultural values, and educational goals enhances
learner needs. Through generating personalized learning materials and relevance and effectiveness. This adaptation ensures that GenAI en-
adjusting to individual learning paces, GenAI can help teachers address hances rather than displaces traditional pedagogical practices, fostering
students’ varied abilities and interests for more inclusive and effective inclusive and culturally responsive learning environments. Eduational
teaching practices. Moreover, applying GenAI to create personalized institutions and policymakers should prioritize investment in digital
professional development opportunities for teachers resonates with infrastructure and technical support to facilitate seamless integration of
Adult Learning Theory (Knowles, 1980), which emphasizes the need for GenAI in educational settings. Reliable internet access, updated hard-
self-directed, relevant, and practical learning experiences for adults. ware, and software platforms are essential for deploying AI tools effec-
GenAI can offer customized professional development opportunities, tively. Furthermore, dedicated technical support and professional
allowing teachers to acquire new skills and knowledge that directly development opportunities ensure teachers can leverage GenAI to its full
address their unique teaching contexts and challenges. potential, overcoming technological barriers and maximizing educa-
This study has illuminated the transformative potential of GenAI, tional impact.
particularly exemplified by ChatGPT, in tackling educational challenges Looking ahead, future research endeavors should delve deeper into
encountered by Iranian English language teachers. By showcasing how the specific mechanisms through which GenAI can address the unique
GenAI can generate diverse and up-to-date learning materials tailored to challenges encountered by English language teachers in other contexts,
individual learners’ needs and interests, address ideological biases, and particularly in terms of accessing diverse learning materials and navi-
alleviate isolation from global trends in English language education, the gating ideological influences. Further exploration of strategies for
study adds a novel dimension to the discourse on technology integration seamlessly integrating GenAI into existing curriculum frameworks and
in language teaching. teacher training programs will provide valuable insights into maxi-
mizing the transformative impact of AI in language education in other
6. Conclusion contexts. Moreover, longitudinal studies examining the sustained effects
of AI-driven initiatives on students’ language proficiency, critical
This study uniquely contributes to the field of language education by thinking abilities, and global perspectives will contribute to a compre-
addressing how GenAI can overcome educational challenges within the hensive understanding of the broader implications of utilizing technol-
unique socio-political and economic context of Iran. It explores navi- ogy to enhance English language education in Iran and beyond.
gating ideological influences and resource limitations that impact En- While this study underscores the transformative potential of GenAI,
glish language education. Furthermore, the study demonstrates GenAI’s it is essential to acknowledge its limitations. Caution is warranted when
potential to promote inclusive education by providing tailored learning applying findings beyond the specific context of Iranian English lan-
experiences that accommodate diverse cultural backgrounds and guage education. The effectiveness of GenAI may vary based on local
learning needs. Lastly, the study highlights GenAI as a transformative educational policies, technological infrastructure, and cultural factors.
tool that empowers teachers to innovate and adapt pedagogical prac- Ethical considerations related to the use of AI in education, including
tices to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. data privacy, algorithmic biases, and the responsible integration of AI
This study has also unveiled that by harnessing GenAI, teachers can tools into educational practices, should also be carefully addressed.
access a diverse array of learning materials tailored to individual Additionally, the dependency of GenAI applications on reliable internet
learners’ needs, effectively mitigating resource constraints and enrich- access and digital infrastructure may pose challenges in resource-
ing the quality of English language instruction in Iran. Moreover, the constrained settings.
findings underscore the significance of personalized professional Ultimately, the findings of this study underscore the pivotal role of
development (PD) experiences for teachers, shedding light on GenAI’s GenAI in revolutionizing English language education in Iran, offering a
role in supporting teachers’ growth and fostering innovation in peda- promising avenue for teachers to overcome longstanding challenges and
gogical approaches. Additionally, the study highlights GenAI’s capacity cultivate a dynamic and inclusive learning environment. By embracing
to combat ideological biases, overcome technological barriers, and GenAI as a tool for innovation and empowerment, teachers can work
facilitate cross-cultural communication, thereby promoting intellectual collaboratively to foster a culture of lifelong learning, critical inquiry,
freedom, digital literacy, and global awareness in English language and global engagement among students, equipping them with the skills
education. and competencies needed to thrive in an increasingly interconnected
From a practical perspective, the findings showed that teachers and diverse world.
should integrate GenAI into curriculum design by developing strategies
to seamlessly integrate AI-generated content into existing curriculum Funding
frameworks. This includes leveraging GenAI to create personalized
learning pathways that cater to diverse student needs and learning Not applicable.
styles. PD programs should focus on equipping teachers with the
necessary digital literacy skills to leverage GenAI effectively. Training Availability of data and material
sessions should demonstrate practical applications of GenAI in lesson
planning, assessment, and personalized tutoring. Teachers should pro- The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
mote collaboration and innovation by encouraging initiatives among corresponding author on reasonable request.
teachers to share best practices and innovative approaches in integrating
GenAI. Fostering a culture of innovation supports teachers in exper- Code availability
imenting with new pedagogical strategies empowered by GenAI.
While integrating GenAI, teachers must prioritize ethical consider- Not applicable.
ations related to data privacy, algorithmic biases, and responsible AI use
in educational settings. Policies and guidelines should be established to Consent to participate
ensure transparency, fairness, and accountability in AI-driven educa-
tional practices. Teachers should be trained to recognize and mitigate Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their pri-
biases in AI-generated content to promote inclusivity and equity in vacy rights were strictly observed.

9
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

Consent for publication Estaji, M., & Tahamtani, A. (2023). EFL teachers’ two-folded repertoire in providing
computer-mediated corrective feedback: A perspective-based approach from the
heart of online classrooms. CALL-EJ, 24(3), 174–211. https://callej.org/index.php
Informed consent to publish the results was obtained from all indi- /journal/article/view/50/30.
vidual participants of the study. Fathi, J., & Rahimi, M. (2022). Electronic writing portfolio in a collaborative writing
environment: Its impact on EFL students’ writing performance. Computer Assisted
Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2097697
Declaration of using generative AI in scientific writing Foroutan Far, F., & Taghizadeh, M. (2022). Comparing the effects of digital and non-
digital gamification on EFL learners’ collocation knowledge, perceptions, and sense
The author would like to acknowledge the use of ChatGPT in of flow. Computer Assisted Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/
09588221.2022.2146724
enhancing the readability of this manuscript under human oversight. Ghafouri, M. (2024). ChatGPT: The catalyst for teacher-student rapport and grit
However, the author remains ultimately responsible and accountable for development in L2 class. System, 120, Article 103209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
the whole content of the work. system.2023.103209
Godwin-Jones, R. (2023). Emerging spaces for language learning: AI bots, ambient
intelligence, and the metaverse. Language, Learning and Technology, 27(2), 6–27.
CRediT authorship contribution statement https://hdl.handle.net/10125/73501.
Gruba, P., & Chau Nguyen, N. B. (2019). Evaluating technology integration in a
Vietnamese university language program. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32
Dara Tafazoli: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, (5–6), 619–637. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1527365
Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project Hosseini Goodrich, N. (2020). English in Iran. World Englishes, 39(3), 482–499. https://
administration, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data doi.org/10.1111/weng.12491
Hsu, Y. C., & Ching, Y. H. (2023). Generative artificial intelligence in education, part one:
curation, Conceptualization. The dynamic frontier. TechTrends, 67, 603–607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-
023-00863-9
Declaration of competing interest Hwami, M. (2022). A comparative scoping review of the impact of international
economic sanctions on education. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and
International Education, 52(6), 949–965. https://doi.org/10.1080/
The authors declares that he has no known competing financial in- 03057925.2020.1846120
terests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Jeon, J., & Lee, S. (2023). Large language models in education: A focus on the
complementary relationship between human teachers and ChatGPT. Education and
the work reported in this paper. Information Technologies, 28, 15873–15892. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-
11834-1
References Kargar Behbahani, H., & Karimpour, S. (2024). The impact of computerized dynamic
assessment on the explicit and implicit knowledge of grammar. Computer Assisted
Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2024.2315504
Al-khresheh, M. H. (2024). Bridging technology and pedagogy from a global lens:
Kasneci, E., Sessler, K., Küchemann, S., Bannert, M., Dementieva, D., Fischer, F.,
Teachers’ perspectives on integrating ChatGPT in English language teaching.
Gasser, U., Groh, G., Günnemann, S., Hüllermeier, E., Krusche, S., Kutyniok, G.,
Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence. , Article 100218. https://doi.org/
Michaeli, T., Nerdel, C., Pfeffer, J., Poquet, O., Sailer, M., Schmidt, A., Seidel, T., …
10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100218
Kasneci, G. (2023). ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large
Alm, A., & Watanabe, Y. (2023). Integrating ChatGPT in language education: A freirean
language models for education. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, Article
perspective. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 11(3), 19–30. https://doi.
102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274
org/10.30466/ijltr.2023.121404
Khazaie, S., & Ebadi, S. (2023). Exploring the feasibility of augmented reality game-
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C. K., & Walker, D. (2014). Introduction to research in
supported flipped classrooms in reading comprehension of English for Medical
education. Cengage Learning.
Purposes. Computer Assisted Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/
Bannister, P., Santamaría-Urbieta, A., & Alcalde-Peñalver, E. (2023). A systematic review
09588221.2023.2173612
of Generative AI and (English Medium Instruction) higher education. Aula Abierta,
Khezrlou, S. (2024). Effects of task repetition with consciousness-raising in wiki-
52(4), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.17811/rifie.52.4.2023.401-409
mediated collaborative writing on the development of explicit and implicit
Bergen, N., & Labonté, R. (2020). Everything is perfect, and we have no problems”:
knowledge. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 37(1–2), 243–278. https://doi.org/
Detecting and limiting social desirability bias in qualitative research. Qualitative
10.1080/09588221.2022.2033789
Health Research, 30(5), 783–792. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732319889354
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From andragogy to pedagogy.
Bewersdorff, A., Seßler, K., Baur, A., Kasneci, E., & Nerdel, C. (2023). Assessing student
Cambridge. https://www.umsl.edu/~henschkej/articles/a_The_Modern_Practice_of_
errors in experimentation using artificial intelligence and large language models: A
Adult_Education.pdf.
comparative study with human raters. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence,
Kohnke, L., Moorhouse, B. L., & Zou, D. (2023). ChatGPT for language teaching and
5, Article 100177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100177
elarning. RELC Journal, 54(2), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/
Bonner, E., Lege, R., & Frazier, E. (2023). Large language model-based artificial
00336882231162868
intelligence in the language classroom: Practical ideas for teaching. Teaching English
Konuralp, H., & Topping, K. J. (2023). Underlying factors influencing the quality of
with Technology, 23(1), 23–41. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1383526.pdf.
online EFL teaching in higher education: An Iranian case study. Interchange, 54,
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative
353–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780-023-09499-3
Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Kramsch, C. (2014). Language and culture. AILA Review, 27(1), 30–55. https://doi.org/
Carlson, M., Pack, A., & Escalante, J. (2023). Utilizing OpenAI’s GPT-4 for written
10.1075/aila.27.02kra
feedback. TESOL Journal, e759. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.759
Lee, U., Jung, H., Jeon, Y., Sohn, Y., Hwang, W., Moon, J., & Kim, H. (2023). Few-shot is
Chamani, F. (2023). Alternative futures of English language education in Iran in the era
enough: Exploring ChatGPT prompt engineering method for automatic question
of globalization. Linguistics and Education, 73, Article 101146. https://doi.org/
generation in English education. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.
10.1016/j.linged.2023.101146
org/10.1007/s10639-023-12249-8
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating
Li, B., Bonk, C. J., & Kou, X. (2023). Exploring the multilingual applications of ChatGPT:
quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson.
Uncovering language learning affordances in YouTuber videos. International Journal
Czarniawska, B. (2004). Narratives in social science research. SAGE.
of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 13(1). https://doi.org/
Dashtestani, R., & Hojatpanah, S. (2022). Digital literacy of EFL students in a junior high
10.4018/IJCALLT.326135
school in Iran: Voices of teachers, students, and ministry directors. Computer Assisted
Lichtman, M. (2013). Qualitative research in education: A user’s guide (3rd ed.). SAGE.
Language Learning, 35(4), 635–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/
Mazlum, F. (2022). Is English the world’s lingua franca or the language of the enemy?
09588221.2020.1744664
Choice and age factors in foreign language policymaking in Iran. Language Policy, 21,
Demir, N., & Kayaoğlu, M. N. (2022). Multi-dimensional foreign language education: The
261–290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-021-09613-0
case of an eTwinning project in Turkey. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(9),
McCallum, L. (2024). New takes on developing intercultural communicative
2201–2238. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1871027
competence: Using AI tools in telecollaboration task design and task completion.
Ebadijalal, M., & Moradkhani, S. (2023). Impacts of computer-assisted collaborative
Journal for Multicultural Education. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-06-2023-0043
writing, collaborative prewriting, and individual writing on EFL learners’
Mehrabi, S. (2014). International economic sanctions, university life, and global
performance and motivation. Computer Assisted Language Learning. https://doi.org/
citizenship education: The case of Iran. Cultural and Pedagogical Inquiry, 6(1), 43–66.
10.1080/09588221.2023.2178463
https://doi.org/10.18733/C3D30T
Eren, Ö. (2023). Raising critical cultural awareness through telecollaboration: Insights
Meihami, H. (2021). A narrative inquiry into Iranian EFL teacher teachers’ voice about
for pre-service teacher education. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(3),
challenges of CALL teacher education. Teaching English with Technology, 21(2),
288–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1916538
92–111.
Essel, H. B., Vlachopoulos, D., Essuman, A. B., & Amankwa, J. O. (2024). ChatGPT effects
Meirbekov, A., Nyshanova, S., Meiirbekov, A., Kazykhankyzy, L., Burayeva, Z., &
on cognitive skills of undergraduate students: Receiving instant responses from AI-
Abzhekenova, B. (2023). Digitisation of English language education: Instagram and
based conversational large language models (LLMs). Computers and Education:
TikTok online educational blogs and courses vs. traditional academic education.
Artificial Intelligence, 6, Article 100198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
caeai.2023.100198

10
D. Tafazoli Computers and Education: Arti cial Intelligence 7 (2024) 100275

How to increase student motivation? Education and Information Technologies. https:// Taghizadeh, M., & Ejtehadi, A. (2023). Investigating pre-service EFL teachers’ and
doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12396-y teacher teachers’ experience and attitudes towards online interaction tools. Computer
Mirhosseini, S., & Miryouness Haghi, M. (2023). Official policies of English language Assisted Language Learning, 36(8), 1633–1667. https://doi.org/10.1080/
education in Iran: ‘policy as discourse’ in national documents. Asian Englishes, 26, 09588221.2021.2011322
410–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2023.2251738 Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms.
Moorhouse, B. L., & Kohnke, L. (2024). The effects of generative AI on initial language Pearson Education.
teacher education: The perceptions of teacher teachers. System. , Article 103290. Tseng, W., & Warschauer, M. (2023). AI-writing tools in education: If you can’t beat
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103290 them, join them. Journal of China Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 3(2),
Novita, D., Purwati, O., & Anam, S. U. (2022). In-service EFL teachers’ sociocultural- 258–262. https://doi.org/10.1515/jccall-2023-0008
based TPACK beliefs and practices: Voice of teachers and students. CALL-EJ, 23(1), Ulla, M. B., Perales, W. F., & Busbus, S. O. (2023). ‘To generate or stop generating response’:
278–293. http://callej.org/journal/23-1/Novita-Purwati-Anam2022.pdf. Exploring EFL teachers’ perspectives on ChatGPT in English language teaching in
Orvik, A., Larun, L., Berland, A., & Ringsberg, K. C. (2013). Situational factors in focus Thailand. Learning: Research and Practice, 9(2), 168–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/
group studies: A systematic review. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 12 23735082.2023.2257252
(1), 338–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940691301200116 van Berkel, N., Goncalves, J., Hosio, S., Sarsenbayeva, Z., Velloso, E., & Kostakos, V.
Rachmawati, D. L., Purwati, O., & Anam, S. U. (2022). ESP teachers’ socio-cultural (2020). Overcoming compliance bias in self-report studies: A cross-study analysis.
challenges in online formative assessment: Voices of teachers, learners, and International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 134, 1–12. https://doi.org/
coordinators. CALL-EJ, 23(1), 150–167. http://callej.org/journal/23-1/Rachmawat 10.1016/j.ijhcs.2019.10.003
i-Purwati-Anam2022.pdf. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Harvard University Press.
Rassaei, E. (2023). Implementing mobile-mediated dynamic assessment for teaching Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research: Design and methods. SAGE.
request forms to EFL learners. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(3), 257–287. Zarei, M. J., & Navidinia, H. (2024). Improving EFL students’ writing skills through
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1912105 digital storytelling. CALL-EJ, 25(1), 108–128. https://callej.org/index.php/journa
Rohollahzadeh Ebadi, M. (2023). Technology-mediated teaching vocabulary: Exploring l/article/view/103/364.
EFL learners’ depth and breadth of lexical knowledge. Computer Assisted Language Zimmer, W. K., & Matthews, S. D. (2022). A virtual coaching model of professional
Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2023.2271530 development to increase teachers’ digital learning competencies. Teaching and
Salmons, J. (2014). Qualitative online interviews: Strategies, design, and skills (2nd ed.). Teacher Education, 109, Article 103544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
SAGE. tate.2021.103544
Shabani, K., & Jabbari, A. (2023). Differential effects of interaction-embedded vs
interaction-reduced modes of fully online flipped instruction on EFL learners’
Dara Tafazoli (PhD) is a Research Officer on the VR School Study. He is currently working
speaking. Computer Assisted Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/
on developing and implementing the CALL literacy framework for language teachers at the
09588221.2023.2219280
University of Newcastle, Australia. Dara received his PhD in Languages and Cultures from
Tafazoli, D. (2021). CALL teachers’ professional development amid the COVID-19
the University of Cordoba, Spain, in 2019. He has published several books and papers on
outbreak: A qualitative study. CALL-EJ, 22(2), 4–13. http://callej.org/journal/22-2/
Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), teacher education and professional
Tafazoli2021.pdf.
development, and cross-cultural studies related to language education. His research in-
Tafazoli, D., & Egan, K. (2022). Antagonism between western and Islamic cultures in
terests are CALL, CALL teacher education and professional development.
Iranian English textbooks. Porta Linguarum, 37, 63–68. https://doi.org/10.30827/
portalin.vi37.21243

11