GDU 07414: ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Scope of environment for sustainable development

One of the major environmental concern of our times is on how to build up

and disseminate evidence-based knowledge about man-made climate
change, and to lay the foundations for action needed to counteract
such change.

The world is said to have entered a new era, Anthropocene era, where the
man-made impacts on the environment are pervasive.

The extensive climatic changes are expected to continue to alter and

threaten the living conditions of much of humankind, with particularly
heavy impacts on the world’s most vulnerable countries that are more
dependent on their environment. However, currently these impacts are also
notable even in the developed countries

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC’s) reports from the

2000s up to the current AR6 Synthesis Report on Climate Change 2023 have
constantly showed the significance of climate change for the world’s poor.
Storms, drought, heatwaves, early flowering seasons, changes in insect
migrations and dwindling water supplies from mountain regions were global
problems the world’s poorest countries deal with.

One of the famous quotes to summarize this, ‘as polluters quibble, the poor
learn their fate’ (Brahic 2007). This is as the vulnerable communities
which have historically contributed the least to the current climate
change are excessively affected and are least equipped to mitigate
climatic impacts.

The AR6 IPCC’s report 2023 points out clearly that the ‘adverse impacts from
human-caused climate change will continue to intensify’ and substantial
impacts are likely to be observed in;

a. Water availability and food production

 Physical water availability
 Agriculture/crop production
 Animal and livestock health and productivity
 Fisheries yields and aquaculture production
b. Health and wellbeing
 Infectious diseases
  Heat (high temperatures), malnutrition and harm from wildfires
 Mental health
 Displacement
c. Cities, settlement and infrastructure
 Inland flooding and associated damages
 Flood/storm induced damages in coastal areas
 Damages to infrastructures
 Damages to key economic sectors
d. Biodiversity and ecosystem (Changes in ecosystem structure, species
ranges and seasonal timing (seasonality))
 Changes in terrestrial ecosystem
 Changes in freshwater ecosystem
 Changes in ocean ecosystem

Therefore, understanding environmental and climatic changes in the current

era remains crucial specifically when human development is concerned.

Bill Adams (2009) on his book Green Development points out how in the
early 2000s the issue of human impacts on global climate change were
mainly framed within a broader debate about sustainability. To Adams an
urgent transition to sustainability was needed because ‘global life support
systems – the environment – have a time-limit’ (Goodland et al. 1993, p.
297).

Consequently, the loss of species and natural habitat caused by

development projects had been a strong focus for the extension of
environmental pressure-groups. However, there was a self-conscious effort
to move beyond environmental protection and transform conservation
thinking by appropriating ideas and concepts from the field of development.

The concept sustainable development then emerged in the quest for

sustainability as other global issues (such as biodiversity depletion and
pollution), while simultaneously tackling global inequality and poverty and
not letting the wheels come off the world economy.

Nevertheless, Adams views the concept sustainable development as a

classic oxymoron, combining two seemingly contradictory concepts.

1.1 Concept of environment

The word environment is derived from the French word Environner, which
means to encircle or surround.

In this case, environment etymologically refers to ‘natural surrounding’, that

is, it covers the physical surroundings that are common to all living beings
and include air-space, water, land, plant, wildlife and flora-fauna etc.

However, it is difficult to define environment but one can define environment

as the sum total of water, air, land and the interrelationships that
exist among them and with the human beings, other living
organisms and materials.

Environment can also be defined in a more comprehensive way ‘as a

holistic view of the world as its functions at any point of time, with a
multitude of spatial elemental and socio-economic systems
distinguished by quality and attributes of space and mode of
behaviour of abiotic and biotic forms.’ (K.R. Dikshit, 1984)

It is argued that in the beginning, environment of early man consisted of only

physical aspects of the planet earth such as land (lithosphere), air
(atmosphere) and water (hydrosphere) along with biotic communities. But,
with the passage of time and advancement of society man extended his
environment to include his social, economic and political functions too.

In this case, the current debates on the definition of the environment highly
stresses on the extent in which man is part and parcel of the environment
today.

1.2 Components/elements of the environment

The basic components of environment consist of plants, animals including
human beings. These components may broadly be placed two categories
namely; Abiotic components and Biotic components. However, social
scientists and recently scholars have continuously argued for the role of
culture in the environment. In this case, the third component, known as the
cultural component has been highly proposed.

The importance of culture has been highly highlighted in the current

‘anthropocene’ debate as people argue that the human – nature distinction
that views human separate from the environment has obscured the role of
cultural components. Therefore, alternative concepts such as ‘capitalocene’
have been added to highlight the central role of cultural components in the
environment. In this case, the three components of the environment include;
1. Abiotic components:

Abiotic components consist of the following:

 Climatic elements including sun, energy, temperature, air, light,

humidity, rain etc.
 Isographic elements such as huge mountains, slopes etc.
 Water-resource elements which includes sea, lakes, ponds, rivers,
underground water etc.
 Soil elements.
 Mine, rocks and underground minerals.
 Geographical elements which includes trans-regional parts of the
earth, shores, deserts, mountainous region, forest-land etc.

2. Biotic components:

Biotic elements consist of living beings, tree, plants, micro-organisms, birds,

flora-fauna etc.

3. Cultural components:

1.3 Functions of the environment

Human welfare and the quality of life depend directly or indirectly on the
availability of environmental goods and services in many ways. Four function
categories are distinguished, mainly based on Van der Maarel & Dauvellier
(1978) and Braat et al. (1979). In addition, it must be realized that there are
probably many unknown goods and services (functions) which are not yet
recognized, but which may have considerable (potential) benefits to human
society from the environment.

1. Regulation functions
This group of functions relates to the capacity of natural and semi-natural
ecosystems to regulate essential ecological processes and life support
systems which, in turn, contributes to the maintenance of a healthy
environment by providing clean air, water and soil.

The functions here include;

Protection against harmful cosmic influences
Regulation of the local and global energy balance
Regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere
Regulation of the chemical composition of the oceans
Regulation of the local and global climate
Regulation of runoff and flood prevention (watershed protection)
Water catchment and groundwater recharge
Prevention of soil erosion and sediment control
Formation of topsoil and maintenance of soil fertility
Fixation of solar energy and biomass production
Storage and recycling of organic matter
Storage and recycling of nutrients
Storage and recycling of human waste
Regulation of biological control mechanisms
Maintenance of migration and nursery habitats
Maintenance of biological (and genetic) diversity

2. Carrier functions
Carrier functions: natural and semi-natural ecosystems provide space and a
suitable substrate or medium for many human activities such as habitation,
cultivation and recreation.

The functions here include;

Human habitation and (indigenous) settlements
Cultivation
Energy conversion
Recreation and tourism
Nature protection

3. Production functions
Production functions: nature provides many resources, ranging from food
and raw materials for industrial use to energy resources and genetic
material.

The functions here include;

Oxygen
Water
Food and nutritious drinks
Genetic resources
Medicinal resources
Raw materials for clothing and household fabrics
Raw materials for building, construction and industrial use
Biochemicals (other than fuel and medicines)
Fuel and energy
Fodder (animal feed) and fertilizer
Ornamental resources

4. Information functions
Natural ecosystems contribute to the maintenance of mental health by
providing opportunities for reflection, spiritual enrichment, cognitive
development and aesthetic experience.

The functions here include;

Providing aesthetic information
Providing spiritual and religious information
Providing historic information
Providing cultural and artistic inspiration
Providing scientific and educational information
2. Sustainable development in the contemporary world

Understanding of sustainable development as previously mention is

associated with the human-nature relationship (also known as nature-
culture/society relationship).

Within this human-nature divide there are two main models that are crucial
to understand; First, is the ‘environmental determinism’ which argues that
nature through its grand force and subtle expressions limits or shapes the
society. Second, is the model which posits that the society also shapes and
controls nature, largely through technology and social institutions.

In the contemporary world, the quest for sustainable development can be

traced from the Agenda 21 of the second Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The
central focus of the summit was to ensure sustainable future of the earth and
therefore the meeting established a number of treaties on global
environmental issues by raising public awareness of the need to integrate
environment and development.

Therefore, the agenda 21 of the 1992 summit was considered

revolutionary as it not only popularized the term sustainable development
but also set the agenda that guided activities of different stakeholders in
improving environment by increasing economic development in the world’s
periphery 20 years after in 2002 (Rio +10) and 2012 (Rio +20) earth
summits.

The 2002 earth summit (Rio +10) held in Johannesburg aimed to assemble
different stakeholders (such as leaders, NGOs, governments, NGOs) on
measures towards achieving sustainable development. Rio +10 further
aimed and enhance the integration of the sustainable development in the
activities of all the relevant UN agencies, programs and funds.

Similarly, the 2012 earth summit (Rio 20+) further pushed for renewed
political commitment towards sustainable development, and aimed at
assessing progress towards agreed goals on sustainable development at the
international level and addressing the emerging challenges. This summit was
focused on 2 main themes which are;

 A green economy in the context of poverty eradication and sustainable

development.
 Institutional framework for sustainable development.
In these three summits, sustainable development seeks a balance
among economic growth, environmental impacts, and social equity.
The 3 are also crucial in defining the pillars of sustainable development where
there are 3 pillars of sustainable development which are:

1. Economic sustainability: which aims to reduce extreme poverty and

guarantee fair paid employment for all.

2. Environmental sustainability: which aims to protect the natural

balance of the planet, while limiting the impact of human activities on
the environment.

3. Social sustainability: which aims to guarantee access to basic

resources and services for all.

The sustainable development is, therefore, a development that is

economically efficient, ecologically sustainable and socially equitable.

Central outcome of the Rio +20 summit was a nonbinding document ‘The
Future We Want’ in which heads of 192 states renewed their commitments
towards sustainable development.

While challenges towards sustainable development are on-going, including

the recent challenges that have been stipulated in the AR6 IPCC’s report
2023, there are a number of progress that have been made throughout the
years. These include;

 Emergence of international institutions (including IPCC) that facilitate

and monitor environmental improvements (or climatic changes).
 A global phase-out of leaded gasoline.
 Increasing scientific and popular interest in global environmental
issues
 Sustainability has become a major concern for different stakeholders.
 New practices are taken up by stakeholders including green
development, environmental restoration, the use of alternative energy
technologies, growth of carbon markets, promotion of biomass (the
total mass of organisms in a given area of volume) and bio-fuels,
sustainable tourism, and sustainable agriculture.

2.1 Meaning of sustainable development

There are different definitions for sustainable development. The most
commonly quoted is that from the Brundtland Report, in Our Common
Future: Where sustainable development is defined as ‘development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland
1987, p. 43). This definition was advanced by Gro Harlem Brundtland, former
Prime Minister of Norway, in his World Commission on the Environment and
Development report, 1987).

According to this definition by Brundtland, sustainable development is about

exploiting the planet's resources in moderation, without exceeding its
capacity for natural renewal.

The strength of this definition stems from simultaneous appeal both to those
concerned about poverty and development and to those concerned about
the state of the environment, and the preservation of biodiversity (J.
Robinson 2004).

Analyzing the above definitions, it follows that sustainable development has

the following features:

 Sustainable development is a global goal. Acceptance doctrine

and concept inclusion in national strategies are not a voluntary choice,
more or opposable potential of a particular type of development, but is
the only way realistic, responsible and beneficial to all nations, while
being concordant demands international cooperation.
 Acceptance philosophy of sustainable development is acutely
required for recognition that previous models have flaws and limits
growth.
 Analysis of sustainable development involves a systematic
approach to triad economic-social-ecological because using
classical methods of analysis and statistical indicators of the current
system cannot meet the demands of sustainable development.
 Sustainable development, recognizing the interdependence of the
three systems and taking into account the need for scientific
understanding of ecosystem functioning, involves a profound change
of mentality in the social system, because current social condition,
especially the many frustrations of generations make it impossible to
practice philosophy of sustainable development without a change of
mentality.
2.2 Objectives of sustainable development

Taking account of the current economic environment and declining natural

resources, sustainable development objectives should focus on maximizing
the satisfaction of the population, but also a more efficient use of resources.

Therefore, as according to the Brundtland Report, sustainable development

can be associated with three categories of objectives:

1. Objectives of the economic system –

 Maximizing the amount of goods and services produced in the
technosphere.
 Maximizing the efficient use of mineral resource flows,
biological, energy and information flows.
 Adaptation technologies for mineral resources and reprocessing
products.
2. Objectives of the social system –
 Equitable allocation of goods and services between the social
contract partners at local, national or global scale;
 Adequate training of all members of society in socio-economic
process;
 Correlation systems of evolution, economic, social and environmental;
 Maintaining cultural diversity to support faster adaptation.
3. Objectives of the ecological system –
 Maintaining biodiversity in support of the possibility of adapting the
area condition of geo biosphere;
 Compliance mechanisms of self-regulation and the natural cycle
times in the biosphere.
 Sustainable development ensures fuller knowledge of the function of
the natural environment or arranged in relation to man and society
(influence positive direct and indirect effects on quality of life).
 Doing exercise is beneficial compared directly as comforting
landscape, a place of leisure and recreational activities, be substituted
by radio, service television and film.

2.2.1 The Sustainable Development Goals

In 2015, the new global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were
adopted by world leaders where 17 global objectives were set for economic,
social and environmentally sustainable development. These goals are
supposed to be worked on for their achievement by 2030. The work on
developing the new objectives is based on the most comprehensive global
consultations the UN has ever conducted.

The objectives (SDGs) are universal - they apply to both high-income and
low-income countries. According to UN estimates, the cost of financing the
development goals amounts to the breathtaking sum of approximately $4
500 billion a year, which is thirty times more than the total annual aid in the
world.

This means that in order to achieve the goals by 2030, everyone must take
responsibility - states, institutions, private companies, the international
community and civil society organizations. Therefore, indicators have been
developed so that it will be possible to measure and follow up the objectives.

The SDGs are also known as the Global Goals. These goals seek to seek to
reconcile economic growth, environmental balance and social progress,
ensuring that all people have the same opportunities and can lead a better
life without compromising the planet. Therefore, the SDGs are also viewed as
the global objectives for sustainable development.

There are a total of 17 SDGs, these include;

1. End poverty
 Eradicate poverty in all its forms, everywhere.

2. Zero hunger

 Eradicate hunger, achieve food safety and improved diet and promote
sustainable agriculture

3. Good health and well-being

 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for everyone of all ages.

4. Quality education
 Ensure inclusive and fair education of good quality and promote
lifelong learning for everyone.

5. Gender equality
  Achieve gender equality and strengthen the position of all women and
girls.

6. Clean water and sanitation

 Ensure access to and the sustainable management of water and

sanitation for everyone

7. Affordable and clean energy

 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy

for everyone

8. Decent work and economic growth

 Promote continuous, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full

and productive employment, and decent work for everyone

9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure

 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable

industrialization and promote innovation

10. Reduced inequalities

 Reduce inequalities within and between countries

11. Sustainable cities and communities

 Make cities and settlements inclusive, safe, flexible and sustainable

12. Responsible consumption and production

 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

13. Climate action

 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its effects

14. Life below water

 Preserve and make sustainable use of seas, lakes and marine

resources for sustainable development

15. Life on land

  Sustainable forestry, stop desertification, slow down and reverse soil
degradation as well as halt the loss of biodiversity

16. Peace, justice and strong institutions

 Promote peaceful and inclusive communities for sustainable

development, provide access to justice for everyone and build
effective, responsible and inclusive institutions at all levels

17. Partnerships for the goals

 Strengthen implementation tools and revitalize the Global Partnership

for Sustainable Development.

2.3 Linkage between environment and sustainable development

There is a close relationship between development and the environment.

The first is based on environmental resources. This is as development

cannot be done without environmental resources. Therefore, the
damage to the environment and its resources is detrimental to human
needs.

In this case development should be the foundation for putting a close

consideration to the environment and its resources. This is as development
and environment are interdependent and the twin objectives of development
is not achieved without the introduction of sound environmental policies.

An analysis of current environmental goals and targets shows that the

successful ones (targets) are built on general support from society and a
scientific consensus that the problem exists and is urgent.

However, there has been constant contradictions between environment and

development specifically in the 1960s as effects of industrialization and
modernization has widely been felt in the world.

Actions are currently taken to ensure the maintenance of the linkage

between environment and sustainable development. These actions include;

a) Rewilding, Rewilding is a progressive approach to conservation.

Rewilding is a form of ecological restoration aimed at increasing
biodiversity and restoring natural processes. It's about letting
 nature take care of itself, enabling natural processes to shape land and
sea, repair damaged ecosystems and restore degraded landscapes.

Through rewilding, wildlife's natural rhythms create wilder, more

biodiverse habitats. It differs from ecological restoration in that, while
human intervention may be involved, rewilding aspires to reduce
human influence on ecosystems. While it places emphasis on
recovering geographically specific sets of ecological interactions and
functions that would have maintained ecosystems prior to human
influence, rewilding is open to novel or emerging ecosystems which
encompass new species and new interactions.
b) Ecosystem restoration is the practice of renewing and restoring
degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems and habitats in the
environment by active human interruption and action.
c) recycling and reuse, and
d) Increased conservation.

3. Natural resource management for sustainable development

3.1 Define natural resources
Natural resources can be defined as the materials from the Earth that are
used to support life and meet people’s needs.

Any natural substance that humans use can be considered a natural

resource.

Natural resources may include Oil, coal, natural gas, metals, stone, sand, air,
sunlight, soil and water. Animals, birds, fish and plants are natural resources
as well.

Generally, Natural resources are crucial for survival.

 They are used to make food; All of the food that people eat comes from
plants or animals.
 They are used for fuel; Natural resources such as coal, natural gas and
oil provide heat, light and power.
 They are also used as raw materials in production; They are used to
make products that we use everyday from our toothbrush and lunch
box to our clothes, cars, televisions, computers and refrigerators.
3.2 Types of natural resources
There are 2 main types of natural resources;

3.2.1 Renewable Natural Resources

Renewable resources are those natural resources such as trees, water, sun
and wind that can be replenished at about the same rate at which they are
used. Renewable resources, however, can be depleted if not properly
managed or conserved.

3.2.2 Non-renewable Natural Resources

Nonrenewable resources are those natural resources that are depleted more
quickly than they can regenerate. Fossil fuels like oil and natural gas were
formed over millions of years. Once mined and used completely,
nonrenewable resources are gone forever.
3.2.3 Differences between Renewable and Non-renewable resources
Renewable resource Non-renewable resource
1. It can be renewed as it 1. Once completely consumed, it
available in infinite quantity cannot be renewed due to
limited stock
2. Sustainable in nature 2. Exhaustible in nature
3. Low cost and environmental 3. High cost and less
friendly environmental friendly
4. Replenish (restock) quickly 4. Replenish (restock) slowly or
do not replenish naturally at
all

3.3 Factors determining the resources

 Human resources
 Capital
 Knowledge about resource
 Technology in extraction and processing
 Use-value (market) of such resources

5. Environmental impact assessment for sustainable development

5.1 Nature of environmental impact assessment

The Environmental Impact Assessment is a response to industrialization and
urbanization in western countries before the First World War that was
causing rapid loss of natural resources.

The loss of natural resources continued to the period after the Second World
War giving rise to concerns for pollution, quality of life and
environmental stress.

In early 60s, investors and people realized that the projects they were under
taking were affecting the environment, resources, raw materials and people.
As a result of this, pressure groups formed with the aim of getting a tool that
can be used to safeguard the environment in any development.

The USA decided to respond to these issues and established a National

Environmental Policy Act in 1970 to consider its goal in terms of
environmental protection.
The USA became the first country to enact legislation on EIA. This was the
first time that EIA became the official tool to be used to protect the
environment.

The United Nations Conference on the Environment in Stockholm in 1972 and

subsequent conventions formalized EIA. At present, all developed countries
have environmental laws whereas most of the developing countries are still
adopting it (Lee, 1995).

Multilateral and bilateral lenders included EIA requirements in their project

eligibility criteria (OECD, 1996).

In developing countries not only that EIA is a new concept but the concept
was not readily understood and accepted as a tool. Developers resisted and
argued that it was anti-development because laws and policies supporting it
dictated that lands developments causing negative impacts should be
discontinued. Example is Stigler’s Gorge HEP project. In these cases
four main challenges are identified;
a) EIA was and still is projected and considered as just another
bureaucratic stumbling block in the path of development.
b) EIA was conceived as a sinister means by which industrialized nations
intend to keep developing countries from breaking the vicious cycle of
poverty.
c) There are limited experts in the developing countries and most were
foreigners who were viewed as agents of colonization
d) EIA is considered expensive and therefore funders would prefer to cut
that cost and invest it elsewhere
Nevertheless, EIA has currently become increasingly important and is now a
statutory requirement in many developing countries.

Definition:
National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) defines
Environmental Impact Assessment as “a process for orderly and systematic
valuation of a proposal including its alternatives and objectives and its
effects on the environment including the mitigation and management of
those effects”.
The process extends from the initial concept of the proposal through
implementation to completion and, where appropriate, decommissioning.

Environmental impact assessment in the wider context also includes social

assessment, risk assessment and health assessments. The highest
level of environmental assessment is known as Strategic Impact
Assessment. This addresses plans/programs, policies or legislation.

The role of EIA was recognised at the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992 for which Principle 17 of the
Rio Declaration states:
“EIA as a national instrument shall be undertaken for proposed activities
that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment
and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.”

Making EIA effective in Tanzania

In order to make EIA process effective, the following have been proposed as
important ingredients;
 Establish institutional linkage between national and District levels
 Continue to raise public awareness on the usefulness of EIA to
eliminate the existing misconceptions about EIA and strengthen
political commitment
 Enhance capacity at all levels to manage the EIA process as well as
provision of adequate resources in both human as well as financial
 Motivate stakeholder involvement in EIA process mandatory and adopt
participatory and adaptive approaches
 Develop nationally recognised environmental standards and guidelines
 Encourage data and information generation & dissemination
 Establish a register of EIA consultants and field of competence
 Make EIA reports available for public reference
 Publish screening reports and final decisions and the applicable
conditions

Assignment questions:
1. Using David Hartley’s chapter on ‘Anthropocene, Capitalocene and the
Problem of Culture’, what are the main weaknesses of the term
‘Anthropocene’ in understanding the current environmental challenges
and how does including culture in the term ‘Capitalocene’ help to address
these weaknesses?