Solar Cell Structure
A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight into electricity. Light shining
on the solar cell produces both a current and a voltage to generate electric power. This process
requires firstly, a material in which the absorption of light raises an electron to a higher energy
state, and secondly, the movement of this higher energy electron from the solar cell into an external
circuit. The electron then dissipates its energy in the external circuit and returns to the solar cell.
A variety of materials and processes can potentially satisfy the requirements for photovoltaic
energy conversion, but in practice nearly all photovoltaic energy conversion uses semiconductor
materials in the form of a p-n junction.
Cross section of a solar cell.
The basic steps in the operation of a solar cell are:
the generation of light-generated carriers;
the collection of the light-generated carries to generate a current;
the generation of a large voltage across the solar cell; and
the dissipation of power in the load and in parasitic resistances.
Solar cell physics -- the photovoltaic effect, applied
Sunlight is composed of photons, which can be thought of as "packets" of energy (the amount of
energy in a photon being proportional to the frequency of its light). When photons strike a solar
cell, the vast majority are either reflected or absorbed (some really high-energy photons will blow
right through, but they're of no concern here). When a photon is absorbed, its energy is transferred
to the semiconductor -- in particular, to an electron in an atom of the cell. If enough energy is
transferred, the electron can escape from its normal position associated with that atom. In the
process, the electron causes a hole (i.e., an empty spot where the electron used to be) to form.
Each photon with enough energy will normally free exactly one electron, and one hole. Note that
both electrons and holes are mobile, and as such can be current carriers.
Figure 1. The effect of the electric field in a PV cell (diagram courtesy of How Stuff Works )
The simplest solar cells have 3 active layers -- a top junction layer (made of N-type
semiconductor ), an absorber layer (a P-N junction), and a back junction layer (made of P-type
semiconductor). Thanks to the P-N junction, the cell has it's own built-in electric field. This
electric field provides the voltage needed to force electrons and holes freed by light absorption
to flow in their own directions (the electrons to the N-type side, and the holes to the P-type side).
If we provide an external current path, electrons will flow through this path to their original (P-
type) side to unite with holes the electric field sent there, doing work for us along the way. The
electron flow provides the current, and the cell's electric field causes a voltage. With both current
and voltage, we have power, which is just the product of the two.
Figure 2. Operation of a photovoltaic cell (diagram courtesy of How Stuff Works )
After a moment's thought, you can see that two additional layers must be present in a solar cell -
-electrical contact layers -- to allow electric current to flow out of and into the cell. The electrical
contact layer on the face of the cell where light enters is generally present in some grid pattern
and is composed of a good conductor such as a metal. The grid pattern does not cover the entire
face of the cell since grid materials, though good electrical conductors, are generally not
transparent to light. Hence, the grid pattern must be widely spaced to allow light to enter the solar
cell but not to the extent that the electrical contact layer will have difficulty collecting the current
produced by the cell. The back electrical contact layer has no such restrictions -- it need simply
provide an electrical contact and thus covers the entire back surface of the cell.
Additionally, an antireflective coating is generally applied to the top of the cell to reduce
reflection losses, and a cover plate of some kind is often installed to protect the cell from damage
while out in the real world.
Photovoltaic Cells – Generating electricity
We’ve come a long way to gain an understanding of semi-conductors to see how they relate to
making solar cells. A solar cell is essential a PN junction with a large surface area. The N-type
material is kept thin to allow light to pass through to the PN junction.
Light travels in packets of energy called photons. The generation of electric current happens inside
the depletion zone of the PN junction. The depletion region as explained previously with the diode
is the area around the PN junction where the electrons from the N-type silicon, have diffused into
the holes of the P-type material. When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these atoms in the
N-Type silicon it will dislodge an electron, creating a free electron and a hole. The free electron
and hole has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone. If a wire is connected from the
cathode (N-type silicon) to the anode (P-type silicon) electrons will flow through the wire. The
electron is attracted to the positive charge of the P-type material and travels through the external
load (meter) creating a flow of electric current. The hole created by the dislodged electron is
attracted to the negative charge of N-type material and migrates to the back electrical contact. As
the electron enters the P-type silicon from the back electrical contact it combines with the hole
restoring the electrical neutrality.
