Chapter 9

MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS

Movement is the fundamental requirement of equilibrium or steady state of the organism.

At the same time, an animal cannot change its
organisms. You know that at cellular level, the
place (locomote) without movement of flagella
cytoplasm exhibits streaming movement. At the
or cilia, appendages or limbs. Similarly,
organismic level, the plants move their parts
movements of cilia, tentacles, limbs, tongue,
by phototropism and geotropism. In animals,
jaws are commonly observed during capture
the ingested food gradually moves downward
of food by the animals. Animals also require to
through the alimentary canal. In humans, the move from one place to another for getting food
food is swallowed and then passed downward and other things. Clearly, movements are
through peristalsis. You can recall that the primarily connected with locomotion.
heart pumps blood, which circulates In this chapter, you will be acquainted mainly
throughout the body for transporting nutrients with the mechanism of locomotion and movement
and respiratory gases, hormones and in some animals, including the human. As
nitrogenous wastes. Also, the animal can human locomotion is affected by the interaction
change the plane of orientation of their and coordination of the muscle, skeletal and
appendages or limbs at will. All of these serve nervous systems, you will be introduced with
as examples of the life activity called structure and function of human muscle and
movement. A few other examples are the skeletal systems. The nervous system will be
movements of eyelids, external ear (pinna), dealt separately in Chapter 10.
jaws, tongue, tentacles and cilia. You can notice
that in none of the above cases, organisms 9.1 THE BASIC TYPES OF MOVEMENTS
require to change their places. Nevertheless, Although the uses of movements vary greatly,
animals need to change their places for various it involves three basic mechanisms. These are :
purposes. These include running, flying, amoeboid, ciliary and muscular. Amoeboid
swimming, jumping, crawling, somersaulting movement is typical of Amoeba, which
and so on. Change of place is referred to as performs the function by producing
locomotion. In fact, it is vital for the survival pseudopodia, involving change in shape of the
of the animals as it enables them to procure cell body and streaming movement of
food, search shelter, find mates, protect cytoplasm. Recent studies also reveal the
themselves from predators and perform many involvement of cytoskeletal elements, like
other life activities. microfilaments, in amoeboid movement.
As such, it is difficult to separate movement Amoeboid movement helps in food capture and
from locomotion. In animals, locomotion is change of place as well. The same method of
intimately related to movement. Any change movement is also employed by the leucocytes,
of place involves movement of cytoplasm, cells like phagocytes and macrophages of the
or tissues. Movements of appendages or limbs, human lymphatic system, for engulfment of
or any other body parts in relation to body axis, antigen and migration in the circulatory fluid.
can change the body posture for maintaining Ciliary movement is the characteristic way
 BIOLOGY
112

in which ciliated protozoans, such as myofibrils. In humans, muscles constitute

Paramoecium, move from one place to another nearly 40-50 per cent of the total body weight.
in water. Paramoecium even uses the cilia of Muscles are characterised by properties like
the cytopharynx to drive water and food in their excitability, contractibility, extensibility and
gullet. In fact, cilia present in different animals elasticity. In humans, muscles are broadly
perform a variety of functions. Cilia set up classified into three categories :
water currents that pass over the gills of bivalve (i) Skeletal muscles : These are attached to
molluscs (e.g., Lamellidens); drive water the bones by tendons and help in the
through the water vascular system of movement of the parts of skeleton. As these
echinoderms (e.g., Asterias). The former muscles are under control of conscious mind
function is associated with feeding of molluscs, and can be moved at will, these are also termed
while the latter helps in the locomotion of voluntary muscles. These are innervated by
echinoderms. Ciliary movements of cells lining voluntary nervous system. Under the light
the upper respiratory tract of humans, help to microscope, these skeletal muscles exhibit
transport the invading microbes and dust transverse stripes, and hence, these are
particles. Whereas, the cilia of the Fallopian designated as striated muscles. Skeletal
tube (oviduct) and vasa efferentia of human muscles are responsible for movements to
females and males, transport ova and facilitate locomotion.
spermatozoa, respectively. An enlarged version (ii) Cardiac muscles : These muscles are also
of cilium is known as flagellum. Flagella help striated and occur exclusively in the heart.
in the swimming movements of spermatozoa, These are not under voluntary control, hence,
protozoans like Euglena and maintenance of these are involuntary. These are innervated
water current in the canal system of sponges. by autonomic nervous system.
Muscular movement is the basic mechanism (iii) Smooth muscles : These are the
used in the majority of vertebrates, including involuntary and non-striated muscles and are
humans. This mechanism rests on the use of innervated by autonomic nervous system.
muscle fibres, which throughout the animal These are found inside the wall of the hollow
kingdom, has one universal property. This is internal organs, like alimentary canal,
the ability to exert a force by alternate reproductive tract, blood vessels, and so on.
contraction and relaxation. Most multicellular Smooth muscles help in the movement of
animals possess muscle fibres for movement materials through the tubular organs.
of different organs and attaining locomotion. Structure of Skeletal Muscle
9.2 LOCOMOTION IN HUMANS Skeletal muscles remain attached at the firm
and non-movable part and the freely movable
As stated earlier, locomotion in humans part of the bones. The tendons by which they
depends on the movements of muscle fibres are attached to the bones, are made up of
(muscle cells). Muscles cause movements of connective tissue comprised of collagen.
limbs and internal organs and, thus, coordinate Skeletal muscle consists of numerous
locomotion in humans. Such muscular physiological units, called fibre or muscle
movement is based on the contractile capacity cells. Bundles of muscle fibres are grouped as
of the muscle fibres. Some muscles remain fascicules, which are held together and
associated with skeleton, while many others enclosed by collagen fibres and by connective
form walls of many visceral organs. Therefore, tissue. The bundle of fasciculi is surrounded
it is imperative to learn about the muscles and by a tough external layer called fascia, lying
skeletons before attempting to understand the below the skin. Each muscle fibre is an
mechanism of locomotion in humans. elongated slender cell. It is syncytial, i.e.,
Types of Muscles multinucleate. Its membrane is called
You may recall that muscles are made up of sarcolemma and its cytoplasm is called
contractile fibres which, in turn, are formed of sarcoplasm. The mitochondria of the cell are
 MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS
113

called sarcosomes and the endoplasmic the thick filaments are located centrally. The two
reticulum is designated as sarcoplasmic adjacent sarcomeres have almost continuous
reticulum. Each fibre contains many thin and thin filament having the limiting boundary of Z-
rod-like myofibrils, which bear characteristic line. The thick and thin filaments are alternately
cross-striations (Fig. 9.1). arranged and they form overlaps. The H-zone

Sarcomere

A-band I-band
Mitochondrion
H-zone

Z-line M-line Z-line Sarcolemma

Thick myofilament
Myofibril

Thin myofilament

Sarcoplasmic
recticulum

Fig. 9.1 Myofibrils of a muscle fibre

The myofibrils are arranged in a number of contains only thick filaments, while the I-band
sections, called sarcomeres, joined end to end contains only thin filaments. The remainder of
all along the length of a muscle fibre. Electron A-band has both thick and thin filaments.
microscope reveals that the sarcomeres are The thin filaments consist of actins and the
delineated by a very thin and comparatively thick filaments of myosin (Fig. 9.2). Both actin
dense Z-line. A dark anisotropic band (A-band) and myosin are contractile proteins. Actin has
is present in the centre of the sarcomere. Adjacent low molecular weight filamentous protein. It
to this lies a light isotropic band (I-band). occurs in two forms, the monomeric G-actin
Alternate arrangement of dark and light bands and the polymeric F-actin. The thin filaments
gives the striated appearance to a skeletal muscle. also contain the contractile protein, called
At the centre of the A-band, a comparatively less tropomyosin. It is a rod-shaped fibrous
dark zone called H-zone is present. In the centre protein; the rods link end to end to form two
of H-zone, M-line is present, formed by threads helical strands, which are wrapped around
that connects the myofilaments. The Z-line is the F-actin.
located at the centre of the I-band. Another small globular protein molecule,
The sarcoplasm contains many thick and called troponin, masks the active sites on the
thin filaments. In each sarcomere, the thin F-actin (Fig. 9.2). Each myosin molecule has
filaments are present at the two ends, whereas two components, a tail and a head. The tail is
 BIOLOGY
114

actin and myosin filaments slide past each

other to reduce the length of the sarcomeres
(Fig. 9.3). The actin filaments move inwards
towards the centre of the sarcomere, i.e., deeper
into the A-bands. The heads of the myosin
filaments operate as ‘hooks’; attaching to the
F-actin they form cross-bridges, then change
their relative configuration and pull the actin
filaments further deep into the A-band. As a
result, the Z-lines limiting the sarcomeres, are
drawn closer together (Fig. 9.3 ii, iii). But the
length of the A-band remains unchanged.
Actually, the I-bands reduce in length. However,
the net result is the shortening of the sarcomere.
The actin filaments slide out from the A-band,
resulting in the lengthening of the sarcomere.
Fig. 9.2 Components of thin and thick filaments Muscle fibres are excitable. However, they
differ in their threshold value for stimuli, length,
diameter, reaction time, and period of
formed of light meromyosin (L-MM), while the relaxation. Normally, a nerve impulse arriving
head is formed of heavy meromyosin at the neuromuscular junction initiates
(H-MM). Myosin head has contractile contractile response. The impulse spreads
property as well as ATPase like action; it can rapidly due to depolarisation of the surface of
form a cross-bridge with the active site the sarcomeres. A neurotransmitter released
present on the actin. at the neuromuscular junction, enters into the
The Mechanism of Muscle Contraction sarcomere through its membrane channel. The
According to sliding filament theory of opening of the channel also results in the inflow
muscle contraction, during contraction, the of Na+ inside the sarcomere and generates an
action potential in the muscle fibre. This action
potential travels all along the length of the
muscle fibre. The sarcoplasmic reticulum
releases the stored Ca++, which binds with the
specific sites present on the troponin
component of the thin filament. As a result,
conformational change occurs in the troponin
molecule and the active sites present on the
F-actin molecules are exposed. These sites are
specific to the myosin head, which exhibits Mg++
dependent ATPase activity. During relaxation
of the muscle, the Ca++ is pumped back into
the sarcoplasmic reticulum. As a result, the
troponin component becomes free to mask the
active sites for the myosin head. The cross-
bridge breaks and the thin filament occupies
its normal position. The muscle relaxes.
Red and White Muscles
The skeletal muscles are of two types, red and
white muscles. The basis of such a
Fig. 9.3 Events during muscle contraction classification is the presence of a red pigment,
 MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS
115

called myoglobin, in it . The red muscles

contain very high amount of myoglobin,
whereas the white muscles contain very low
amount. Myoglobin can store oxygen, which
is utilised by the mitochondria for the synthesis
of ATP as and when required. The differences
between the red and white muscles are given
in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1 : Comparison between Red and

White Muscles
Red White
muscle muscle
Diameter Smaller Bigger
Mitochondria More in Less in
number number
Blood capillaries More Less
Sarcoplasmic Less More
reticulum

The Skeletal System

The human endoskeleton is made up of bones
and cartilage of various types. Bone is a hard
connective tissue in which the ground
substance is very hard and contains calcium
salts. The ground substance has enormous
irregular spaces, called lacunae, in which the
osteocytes are present. Cartilage is a firm and
elastic skeletal connective tissue with large
number of chondrocytes embedded in the Fig. 9.4 Human skeleton
matrix. Bone and cartilage help individuals to
axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
sit, walk and run; they also provide protection
Axial skeleton consists of skull, vertebral
to many vital organs like brain, eyes and heart.
Skeleton serves as the reservoir of many column, ribs and sternum, that is, the skeletal
minerals, like calcium and phosphate. The elements which are present along the
marrow of the long bones is the site for the longitudinal axis of the body. There are
haemopoiesis, i.e., formation of blood and 80 bones in this.
blood cells. Most importantly, the skeleton The Skull consists of 29 bones, separated by
plays a vital role in movement and locomotion. sutures having the following parts (Fig. 9.5) :
Human skeleton consists of 206 pieces of (a) Cranial bones : These are 8 flattened
bones (Fig. 9.4). Few cartilages are also present, bones, which are tightly interlocked,
which provide support to structures like ear, forming a box, called cranium, in which
nose and larynx. Bones and cartilages are brain remains protected. The upper jaw
connective tissues. The bones are associated is fused with the cranium, whereas the
with each other with the help of either joints or lower jaw remains connected with the
sutures. The skeletal system is categorised into cranium by muscles.
 BIOLOGY
116

Suture Atlas vertebra

Parietal
Frontal
Cervical Axis vertebra
Temporal
Orbit Occipital Cervical vertebra
Position of ear
Upper jaw

Lower jaw
(mandible)

Thoracic Thoracic vertebra

Fig. 9.5 Human skull

(b) Facial bones : These are 14 in number

and form the front part of the skull along
with skeleton of nose, hard palate and Lumbar
lower jaw. Lumbar vertebra
(c) Hyoid bone : It is a bone placed at the floor
of the buccal cavity.
(d) Bones of middle ear : These are three in
number, namely malleus, incus and stapes. Fused sacral vertebrae
Sacrum
At the posterior end of the cranium are two
smooth and rounded protuberances, the Caudal vertebrae
occipital condyles, that articulate with the Coccyx
first vertebra (atlas).
Vertebral column : It is formed of a series of
bones called vertebrae (Fig. 9.6). In humans,
26 vertebrae are present serially along the
Fig. 9.6 Human vertebral column
length of the trunk starting behind the occipital
bone of the skull. The vertebral column is the 7 in number, thoracic vertebrae are 12 and
main axis of the body, which articulates with lumbar are 5 in number. In the lowermost
skull, pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and the ribs. region of the vertebral column, two triangular
Each vertebra is centrally hollow. This makes fused bones, called sacral vertebrae and
the vertebral column a hollow tube through coccyx, are present (Fig. 9.6).
which the spinal cord coming out of the Ster num : The thorax is supported by
foramen magnum of the cranium passes, and sternum on the ventral side and the thoracic
thus, remains protected. vertebrae on dorsal side. Sternum (breast bone)
The vertebrae are named on the basis of the is a flat and narrow bone of approximately 15
region of the body where they are located. In cm in length situated along the midline of the
the neck region, they are called cervical thorax (Fig. 9.7).
vertebrae, while in the thoracic and abdominal Ribs : The ribs have two facets, which articulate
regions they are named thoracic and lumbar ventrally to the sternum and dorsally to the
vertebrae, respectively. Cervical vertebrae are thoracic vertebrae.
 MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS
117

Appendicular skeleton : It consists of

fore- and hind-limbs, and pectoral and pelvic
girdles. There are 126 bones present in the
human appendicular skeleton.
Limb bones : These are divided into arm
bones and leg bones. Each arm has 30 bones,
which constitute humerus (upper arm), ulna
and radius (lower arm), carpals (wrist),
metacarpals (palm), and phalanges (digits).
Ulna is situated towards the little finger side,
whereas radius towards the thumb side. The
thumb has two bones, whereas the other fingers
have three bones, i.e., proximal, middle and
distal. Figure 9.9 shows the bones of fore limb
and pectoral girdle. Each leg has 30 bones.
Fig. 9.7 Sternum Thigh (upper part of the leg) has the support

There are twelve pairs of ribs, which support

the sides of the thoracic cavity. Each rib remains
attached to the respective thoracic vertebra. The
first seven ribs, called true ribs gradually increase
in size and are attached directly with the sternum
with the help of a hyaline cartilage. Out of the rest
of five ribs, the eighth, ninth and tenth remain
attached to each other, and also with the seventh
rib with the help of cartilage. These are called
vertebrochondral ribs. The last two (eleventh and
twelfth) ribs remain free anteriorly, and hence,
called floating ribs. The thoracic vertebrae, ribs
and sternum, together form the rib cage (Fig. 9.8).

Ribs
Sternum

Vertebral
column

Fig. 9.8 Ribs and rib cage Fig. 9.9 Bones of forelimb and pectoral girdle
 BIOLOGY
118

of the longest and heaviest bone of the body,

i.e., femur. Tibia and fibula bones together
support the shank of the leg; tibia is larger than
Sacrum
fibula and bears the major body weight. Ilium
Proximally, tibia articulates with femur. At the Socket for femur
Pubis
distal end, both tibia and fibula together (accetabulum)
Ischium
articulate with the talus bone of the tarsals. Head of femur
Tarsals of each leg consist of seven bones
forming the ankle. Five metatarsals distally Pubic
articulate with the phalanges or finger bones symphysis
Femur
of the leg. Like the hand, the big toe has two
large phalanges and the rest of the toes are
made up of three phalanges. Figure 9.10
shows the bones of hind limbs and pelvic girdle. Patella
Kneecap is formed by a triangular bone,
patella, which interiorly articulates with the Fibula
condyle of femur.
Girdle bones : These provide a connection Tibia
between the axial skeleton and limbs. The
two girdles are named as pectoral and pelvic
girdles, respectively. Each girdle is formed of Tarsals
two halves.
Each half of pectoral girdle consists of a
Metatarsals
clavicle and a scapula (Fig. 9.9). Clavicle is a
long bone with two curves. Scapula forms the Phalanges
shoulder blade, which is present on the
backside of the thorax above the second to
seventh rib. There is a ridge, called spine
present diagonally across the triangular body Fig. 9.10 Bones of the hind limb and pelvic
of the scapula with a process called girdle
acromion. It articulates with the clavicle.
Below this process, a depression is present,
called glenoid cavity which articulates with Joints : Joints are the place of articulation
the head of the humerus. between two or more bones, or between a bone
Each half of pelvic girdle consists of ilium, and a cartilage. Due to the presence of a
ischium and pubis (Fig. 9.10). Ilium is largest number of joints, the movement of the different
and superior. Pubis and ischium are inferior body parts and the whole body is possible.
and are situated anteriorly and posteriorly, There are few joints along which movement is
respectively. At the point of fusion of the not possible. There are three types of joints :
three bones, a cavity is present, called (a) Fixed or immovable or fibrous : There is
acetabulum, that articulates with head of the no space between the bones. The attached
femur. The pelvic girdle has two coxal bones bones are very tightly held with the help of
forming the hipbone (Fig. 9.10). Anteriorly, white fibrous connective tissue. Sutures
the coxal bones are jointed at the line of present between the skull bones and the
fusion where the two halves of the pelvic articulation of the roots of teeth with sockets
girdle meet (pubic symphysis), while of maxillae and mandible, are two examples of
posteriorly, they are united with the sacral such a joint [Fig. 9.11(a)]
bones. The sacrum and coccyx together form (b) Slightly movable or cartilaginous : It is
the basin-shaped pelvis. an articulation between the bones that allows
 MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS
119

very little movement. In such joints, the

opposing surfaces are connected by
Frontal bone fibrocartilage. For example, joints between
Sutures adjacent vertebrae [Fig 9.11(b)].
(c) Movable joints or synovial : It is a joint
which allows the movement of articulating
Parietal bone
bones such that they can move extensively
upon each other. In such joints, a space
Occipital bone between the bones is present, called synovial
(a)
cavity. This cavity remains filled with a viscous
and slippery synovial fluid [Fig. 9.11(c)].
Articulatory
facet
Synovial joints can be (i) ball and socket joints,
(ii) hinge joints, (iii) pivot joints,
(iv) gliding joints, and (v) ellipsoidal joints.
Role of Muscles and Bones in Movement
Movement of an organ occurs due to the pulling
Centrum of the bones caused by the force generated by
contracting muscles. Movement takes place
(b)
along the joints which act as fulcrum of the
lever. In fact, the bones and joints, function as
Patella lever, about which you have studied in physics.
Ligament Functioning of all the three types of levers can
Synovial fluid Femur be observed in the human skeleton (Fig.9.12).
Cartilage The joint between the first vertebra (atlas) and
Capsule
Synovial membrane occipital bone of skull exhibits the example of
Tibia first class lever, in which joint is the fulcrum,
(c) contraction of back muscle is the effort, and
facial part of the skull on raised head acts as
Fig. 9.11 Three types of joints
the resistance. Human body resting on toes is

Fig. 9.12 Role of bones and muscles in movement : (a) Joint between first vertebra and skull on the
principle of first type of lever (b) Human body resting on toe as second type of lever
(c) Elbow joint of forearm as third type of lever (E=Effort, F=Fulcrum, R=Resistance)
 BIOLOGY
120

the example of second class lever, as the toe are attached with the bones and become
forms the fulcrum and contracting calf muscle ossified, making the joints immovable.
provides effort distally. The body functions as Its treatment concentrates on reduction
resistance exerting in between the fulcrum and of pain and inflammation by heat
effort. The flexing movements of the elbow of treatment and physiotherapy and, in
forearm are based on the principle of third- extreme cases, replacement of the
class lever. Here, the elbow-joint acts as damaged joints.
fulcrum and the distal part of hand provides (ii) Osteoarthritis : is a degenerative joint
resistance. The contracting biceps muscles disease characterised by the degeneration
attached near the elbow joint exert the effort in of the articular cartilage and proliferation
between fulcrum and resistance. of new bones. Usually, afflicted joints are
9.3 DISORDERS OF BONES of spine, knees and hands.
(iii) Gouty arthritis or gout : It is caused
Arthritis either due to excessive formation of uric
It is caused by the inflammation of the joints. acid, or inability to excrete it. It gets
This is of several types, e.g., rheumatoid deposited in joints as monosodium salt.
arthritis, osteoarthritis and gouty
Osteoporosis
arthritis.
(i) The rheumatoid arthritis : It is It is an age-dependent systemic disorder
diagnosed by the presence of characterised by low bone mass,
rheumatoid factor (a type of microarchitectural deterioration of the bone,
immunoglobulin IgM). It is the primary increased fragility and proneness or
symptom of inflammation of synovial susceptibility to fracture. The elderly men and
membrane. If it is left untreated, then the women in particular are most susceptible. It
membrane thickens and synovial fluid may occur in a pregnant woman. In individuals
increases, exerting pressure that causes under prolonged treatment of cortisone, the
pain. The membrane then starts skeleton fails to withstand the stress of the body
secreting abnormal granules, called and bones are easily fractured. Imbalances of
pannus, which after accumulating on hormones like thyrocalcitonin, parathyroid and
the surface of the cartilage, cause its sex-hormones, deficiencies of calcium and
erosion. As a result, the fibrous tissues vitamin D, are the major causative factors.

SUMMARY

Movement and locomotion are necessary for all the vital activities among
animals. This phenomenon is observed in all the animal forms, ranging from
the acellular protozoans to the multicellular and complex animals, like humans.
The three basic types of movements are : amoeboid, ciliary and muscular
movements. Among the multicellular organisms, muscles are essentially
required for movement and locomotion. In humans, the muscles are of three
types – skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are made up
of myofibrils which consist of sarcomeres (cells). The myofibrils show light
and dark bands represented by thin and thick filaments, respectively. The
thin filaments are mainly made up of actin proteins and the thick filaments
of myosin proteins. The heads of thick filament form cross-bridge with actin
during contraction of the muscles.
 MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS
121

Human skeleton consists of bones and cartilages. It provides mechanical

support to the body and protects the soft vital organs. Skull, vertebral column,
ribs and sternum form the axis of the skeleton. Limbs are attached to the
axial skeleton with the help of girdles. The bones at joints and muscles act
as lever to bring about movement.
Arthritis and osteoporosis are the common diseases related to bones,
affecting mainly the elderly persons.

EXERCISES

1. Why are movement and locomotion necessary among the animals ?

2. Elucidate the types of movements found among the animals.
3. What is muscle ? Write the names of different types of muscles.
4. Write true or false :
(a) Actin is present in thin filament
(b) H-zone of striated muscle fibre represents both thick and thin
filaments.
(c) Human skeleton has 207 bones.
(d) There are 11 pairs of ribs in man.
(e) Sternum is present on ventral side of the body.
5. How does the skeletal muscle contract ?
6. Write the difference between :
(a) Actin and Myosin
(b) Red and White muscles
(c) Movable and Immovable joints
7. Fill in the blanks :
(a) Troponin is a part of _____________________ filament.
(b) Head of ____________________ has ATPase activity.
(c) Humerus, radius and _____________ bones are found in the
forearm.
(d) Acetabulum is present in the _____________ girdle.
(e) Ball and socket joint is a ________________ joint.
8. Match Column I with Column II :
Column I Column II
(i) Smooth muscle (a) Myoglobin
(ii) Tropomyosin (b) Third-class lever
(iii) Red muscle (c) Thin filament
(iv) Skull (d) Sutures
(e) Involuntary
9. What is a joint? Write its type with examples.
10. What is the role of girdles in skeleton ?
11. How does calcium affect the process of muscle contraction ?
12. How are thick and thin filaments arranged in a muscle fibre ?
13. What is arthritis ? How is it caused ?
14. Write the names of the factors which are responsible for osteoporosis.
15. How do the joints help in movement ? Explain.