INDEX

TITLE PAGE NO:

INTRODUCTION 2

TYPES OF MOVEMENTS 3

MUSCLES 5

SKELETAL SYSTEM 10

DISORDERS OF SKELETAL AND

MUSCULAR SYSTEMS 16

CASE STUDY 18

BIBLIOGRAPHY 19
 INTRODUCTION
Movement is one of the things that differentiate a living thing from a non- living thing.
When we speak about locomotion and movement, we often use one for the other. But
it is important to understand the difference between the two in relation to living things.
Movement is when the living organism moves a body part or parts to bring without a
change in the position of the organisms. Locomotion is when the movement of a part of
the body leads to change in the position and location of the organism. Both of these are
brought about by the joint efforts of the skeletal and muscular systems. Movement is
seen in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Methods of locomotion performed by
animals vary with their habitat and the demand of the situation. However, locomotion is
generally for search of food, shelter, mate, suitable breeding grounds, and favorable
climatic conditions or to escape from enemies/predators. “All movements are
locomotion.
TYPES OF MOVEMENTS:
• AMOEBOID

• CILIARY

• MUSCULAR

AMOEBOID MOVEMENT:
These movements are by the formation of pseudopodia.

Macrophages, leucocytes of human body show amoeboid movements.

• Cytoskeleton elements like microtubules are helpful in amoeboid movement.

• More accepted theory on the formation of pseudopodia is the sol-gel theory

 CILIARY MOVEMENT:

• Short fine vibratile hair like protoplasmic processes present on the free surface of
the cells.

• Are the cilia.

• Respiratory, reproductive, excretory systems etc. Are lined by ciliated epithelium.

• Ciliated epithelium collects the dust particles and microbes that enter the
respiratory system and send them out.

• Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is facilitated by the ciliary
movement.

MUSCULAR MOVEMENT:

• The contractile property of muscle causes the muscular movement.

• Movement of limbs, jaws, tongue etc. needs muscular movement.
• Locomotion also needs the contractile property of a muscle.
• Coordinated activity of the muscle, skeleton and neural system are needed for
locomotion.
 MUSCLES
Muscles have a range of functions from pumping blood and supporting movement to lifting
heavy weights or giving birth. Muscles work by either contracting or relaxing to cause
movement. This movement may be voluntary or involuntary. Muscle is a specialized tissue
of mesodermal origin. About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is
contributed by muscles. They have Special properties like excitability, contractility,
extensibility and elasticity. Muscles have been classified using different criteria, namely
location, appearance and nature of regulation of their activities. Based on their location,
three types of muscles are identified:

• SKELETAL
• VISCERAL
• CARDIAC

Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeletal components of the body. They
have a striped appearance under the microscope and hence are called striated muscles.
As their activities are under the voluntary control of the nervous system, they are
known as voluntary muscles too. They are primarily involved in locomotory actions and
changes of body postures.

Visceral muscles are located in the inner walls of hollow visceral organs of the body like
the alimentary canal, reproductive tract, etc. They do not exhibit any striation and are
smooth in appearance. Hence, they are called smooth muscles (no striated muscle). Their
activities are not under the voluntary control of the nervous system and are therefore
known as involuntary muscles. They assist, for example, in the transportation of food
through the digestive tract and gametes through the genital tract.

Cardiac muscles are the muscles of heart. Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in a
branching pattern to form a cardiac muscle. Based on appearance, cardiac muscles.They
are involuntary in nature as the nervous system does not control their activities directly.
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
This muscle is attached to the bones by an elastic tissue or collagen fibers called
tendons. These tendons are comprised of connective tissues. The skeletal muscles
consist of a bundle of muscle fibres namely fascicule. These fascicules are cylindrical in
shape as shown in the figure. These muscle fibers are surrounded by blood vessels and
a number of layers of other tissues enclosing it.

Each muscle fibre is lined by plasma membrane namely sarcolemma reticulum. It

encloses a cytoplasm called sarcoplasm which has the endoplasmic reticulum. The
muscle fibers consist of myofibrils, which have two important proteins, namely actin and
myosin in it.

The fascicule is enclosed by perimysium and the endomysium is the connective tissue that
encloses the muscle fibres.
 STRUCTURE OF A MUSCLE FIBRE
• A muscle fibre is surrounded by a sarcolemma. Sarcolemma is a fused structure of
basement membrane and plasma lemma.
• Living substance inside the sarcolemma is the sarcoplasm.Sarcoplasm has several
nuclei.
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum of a muscle fibre stores calcium ions in the cisternae.
• Many mitochondria or sarcosomes are present in the muscle fibre.
• The respiratory pigment of muscle fibre is the the parallelly arranged contractile
Filaments of a muscle fibre are the myofibrils.A myofibril consists of alternate dark
and light bands.
• The light band has the contractile protein actin. The light band is the isotropic band
or I-band.
• The dark band has the contractile proteins myosin actin.The dark band is the
anisotropic band or A-band.
• The contractile proteins are arranged as rod like structures parallel to each other
and to the longitudinal axis of the myofibrils.
• Actin filaments are the thin filaments.Myosin filaments are the thick filaments.
• In the centre of each I-band, there is an elastic fibre called “Z” line or Krause’s
membrane or Dobie's line.
• The thin filaments are attached to the ‘Z’ line. The thick filaments in the A band are
also held together by a thin fibrous membrane the M-line.
• The A-band and I bands are alternately arranged throughout the length of the
myofibrils
• The region of the myofibril between two successive ‘Z’ lines is called
‘Sarcomere’.Sarcomere is the functional unit of contraction.
• In a sarcomere, the central part of the A-band has only thick filaments. This is
the ‘H’ zone or Hensen’s disc.
 TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBRES

• Myoglobin content is high in some muscles which are called ‘red muscle fibres’ .
• Red muscles are having more mitochondria.
• Mitochondria utilise oxygen stored in the myoglobin to produce ATP.
• More amount of glycogen is also present in muscle.
• Red muscles are also called aerobic muscles.
• Some muscles are having less amount of myoglobin. These are called white
muscle fibres.
• White muscle has less number of mitochondria.
• White muscle has more sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• Source of energy for white muscle is anaerobic respiration.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Fiber takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments over the thick filaments Mechanism
of muscle contraction is best explained by the sliding filament Theory which states that
contraction of a muscle. Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the central
nervous system (CNS) via a motor neuron. A motor neuron along with the muscle fibres
connected to it constitutes a motor unit. The junction between a motor neuron and the
sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called the neuromuscular junction or motor-end
plate. A neural signal reaching this junction releases a neurotransmitter (Acetyl choline)
which generates an action potential in the sarcolemma. This spreads through the
muscle fibre and causes the release of calcium ions into the sarcoplasm. Increase in
Ca++ level leads to the binding of calcium with a subunit of troponin on actin filaments
and thereby remove the masking of active sites for myosin. Utilising the energy from
ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed active sites on actin to form
a cross bridge.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Skeletal system of adult human beings is made up of 206 bones and few
cartilages.
• Human endoskeleton is grouped into two divisions the axial skeleton and
appendicular skeleton.

AXIAL SKELETON

• It is present along the main axis of the body.

• It is made up of 80 bones.
• It constitutes the Skull, Vertebral, Column, Sternum and ribs.

SKULL (22 BONES)

• It consists of two sets of bones namely Cranial and Facial bones.

NUMBER OF CRANIAL BONES IN SKULL

Name of the bone Number of bones Location

Fore head, anterior part of the Cranial
Front Bone One floor and roof of the orbits.

Major portion of the sides and roof of

the Cranial Cavity. They are joined to
Parietals Two the frontal bone by a coronal suture
 and posterior to the occiput by
lambdoid structure.
Posterior part and most of the base of
Occipital Bone One the cranium.

Lateral parts and floor of the cranium.

Temporal Bone Two

Present at the middle part of the base

Sphenoid Bone One of the skull key stone bone.

Present on the middle line of the

Ethmoid Bone One anterior part of the Cranial floor.

NUMBER OF FACIAL BONES IN SKULL

Bridge of the nose.

Nasals Two

From the upper jaw.

Maxillae Two

Cheek bones.
Zygomatic Bones Two

Smallest bones of the face.

Lacrimal Bones Two

Three pairs (superior, Lateral wall of the nasal cavity

Nasal Conchae middle and inferior)

Present on h floor of the nasal

Vomer One cavity

Lower jaw, longest and

Mandible One strongest of the facial bones.
SKELETAL STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH SENSE ORGANS

1. Nasal septum: It divides the nasal cavity into right and left cavities.
2. Orbits: Bony depressions which accommodate the eyeballs and associated
structures.
3. Ear Ossicles: Middle ear contains three tiny bones called
i) Malleus – Modified articular
ii) Incus – Modified quadrate
iii) Stapes – Modified hyomandibular

(VERTEBRAL COLUMN 26 VETEBRAE)

Structure of vertebra

1. A vertebra consists of the body (centrum) vertebral arch and many processes
for articulation or attachment of muscles.
2. Vertebral arch encloses the neural canal through which the spinal cord
passes.
3. Articulations between the successive vertebral are called inter vertebral
discs.

Vertebrae in the Vertebral Column

1. Cervical Vertebrae (7)

• First vertebra is the Atlas.
• Second vertebra is the Axis.
• Atlas articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull.
• It has an odontoid canal.
 2. Thoracic Vertebrae (12)
The heads of ribs namely capitulum and tuberculum articulates with the articular
facets of the thoracic vertebrae.
3. Lumbar Vertebrae: Largest and strongest of the vertebrae provide surface for
the attachment of the large back muscles
4. Sacrum: Triangular bone formed by the fusion of the five sacral vertebrae.
5. Coccyx: Triangular bone formed by the fusion of four coccygeal vertebrae.

RIBS

• Ribs of human beings are 12 pairs.

• Rib is a thin curved flat bone.
• Ribs articulate dorsally with the vertebral column. Capitulum of rib (1st head of
rib) articulates with the centrum of the vertebra.
• Tuberculum of rib (2nd head of rib) articulates with the transverse process of the
vertebra.
• The ribs with two articular surfaces or heads are called bicephalic ribs or double
headed ribs.
• The first 7 pairs of ribs are called true ribs.
• True ribs are ventrally connected to the sternum with hyaline cartilage.
• The 8th ,9th and 10th pair of ribs are called vertebrochondral ribs (or) false ribs
• False ribs do not articulate with the sternum.
• False ribs join the seventh pair of ribs with hyaline cartilage.
• Last two pairs (the 11th and 12th pair) are not connected ventrally.
• They are called floating ribs.
• Ribs and sternum form the rib cage or thoracic cage.
• Rib cage protects the heart, lungs and helps in respiration.
STERNUM

The endoskeleton in mid ventral line of thorax is the sternum.

• Sternum of human beings is about 15 cm length.

• Sternum is sword – shaped or dagger shaped structure.
• Sternum has anterior manubrium, middle body and posterior xiphoid process.

PECTORAL GIRDLE

• Bony complex supporting and connecting the limbs and axial skeleton is the
pectoral girdle.
• Pectoral girdle has two halves with Scapulae – 2 and Clavicles – 2.
• Clavicle and Scapula are the two bones in each half of the pectoral girdle.
• “S”- shaped, double-curved, thin and elongated bone is the clavicle or the collar
bone.
• At one end, clavicle is attached to the acromion process of scapula and at its
other end with the manubrium of the sternum.
• Thin, flat, triangular curved bone is the scapula – the shoulder blade.
• Scapula is extended on the back side of the thorax between 2nd to 7th.
• The hook – like structure of scapula is called coracoid process.
• The diagonally placed sharp protuberance of the scapula is the acromion spine.
• The free end of acromion spine has a thick acromion process.
• The glenoid cavity of scapula is for the articulation of the head of the humerus to
form a ball and socket joint called shoulder joint.
PELVIC GIRDLE

• The endoskeleton providing articulation of hind limbs is the pelvic girdle.

• Pelvic girdle has two coxal bones (innominates).
• Each coxal bone (innominatum) is formed by the fusion of three bones such as
Ilium, Ischium and Pubis.
• The cup-shaped cavity formed at the place of the fusion of the three bones is the
acetabulum.
• The head of the femur (thigh bone) articulates with the acetabulum to form a
ball and socket joint called hip joint.
• The two halves of the pelvic girdle fuse midventrally to form a pubic symphysis.
• Pubic symphysis contains fibrous cartilage.

JOINTS
• This cross bridge pulls the actin filament towards
• Joints are points of contact between bones or between bones and cartilages.
• Force generated by the muscle is used to carry out movement through Joints.

TYPES OF JOINTS

Joints are classified into three major structural forms namely (i) Fibrous joints (ii)
cartilaginous joints (iii) synovial Joints

1. Fibrous Joints
• These are composed of dense irregular connective tissue.
• They do not allow any movement.
• These are three types
1. Sutures: Present between the cranial bones. Coronal suture is present
between. Frontal and parietal bones.
2. Syndesmoses: Interosseous membrane present between tibia and fibula.
3. Gomphoses: Dento alveolar Joint.
• Sutures and gomphoses are synarthoses.
2. Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones are joined together by cartilages.
• These are two types
a) Synchondroses: Epiphyseal plate present between Epiphysis and
diaphysis.
b) Symphysis: Pubic symphysis of pelvic girdle.
• Synchondrose is a synarthrose and symphysis is an amphiarthose.
3. Synovial Joints

▫ Fluid filled synovial cavity is present between the articular surfaces of two
bones.

▫ The articular surfaces of bones are covered by hyaline cartilage.

▫ All synovial Joints are diarthroses.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND
SKELETAL SYSTEMS
• Myasthenia gravis: An autoimmune disorder affecting the neuromuscular
junctions leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles.
Acetylecholine receptors on the sarcolemma are blocked by antibodies/auto
immune bodies, leading to weakness of muscles.
• Muscular dystrophy: Progressive degeneration / wasting of skeletal muscle
due to certain genetic disorders such as DMD or nutritional disorders (due to
poor reception of stimuli).
• Tetany: Rapid muscle spasms (wild contractions) in muscles repeated prolonged
contraction of muscles, caused by low blood calcium level, arising from vitamin D
deficiency or underactive parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism).
• Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
• Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass (loss
of calcium due to reabsorption) and increased chances of fracture. Decreased
level of estrogen is a common cause, especially in post menopause women.
• Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.

Gout

Tetany

Arthritis

Myasthenia gravis
CASE STUDY FOR ARTHRITIS:
uncle always had a cheerful smile, but over the last year, I noticed he was walking
slower and often massaging his knees. He told me he felt pain and stiffness in his
joints, especially in the morning. Eventually, he was diagnosed with Arthritis, an
inflammation of the joints that made even basic movements painful. He started taking
anti-inflammatory medicines and began attending yoga sessions and hydrotherapy. It’s
not fully gone, but regular exercise, a warm compress, and avoiding cold weather really
help him. The best part is that now he’s more active and doesn’t let the pain keep him
from enjoying his hobbis.
CASE STUDY FOR TETANY:
It was really scary when my friend Youssef suddenly started having muscle cramps and
twitching fingers during our sports practice. At first, he thought it was dehydration, but
his hands became stiff, and he couldn’t open them properly. We rushed him to the
hospital, where they said he was experiencing Tetany—a condition caused by low
calcium levels in the blood. The doctors gave him calcium and vitamin D supplements,
and within hours, he started feeling better. He later told me that he hadn’t been eating
properly and was skipping meals a lot. Now, he takes his diet seriously and even brings
boiled eggs and milk to school! It taught all of us the importance of proper nutrition.

CASE STUDY FOR OSTOPOROSIS:

My grandmother broke her wrist just by leaning too hard on a pot. It was shocking how
fragile her bones had become. The doctors told us she had Osteoporosis, a condition
where bones become brittle and weak due to loss of calcium and bone density—
especially common in older women. She admitted that she hadn’t been taking calcium-
rich foods or exercising much in recent years. Now she takes calcium and vitamin D
tablets, goes for short walks daily, and avoids any heavy lifting. She’s become more
careful and has regained some of her strength.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kebo120.pdf

https://www.vedantu.com/biology/locomotion-and-
movement

https://www.practically.com/studymaterial/blog/doc
s/class-11th/biology/locomotion-movement/

https://www.bankofbiology.com/2018/08/locomotio
n-and-movement-powerpoint.html