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LOCOMOTION AND
MOVEMENT
WHAT IS LOCOMOTION?
• Locomotion is the
voluntary movements
resulting in a change in
location.
• All locomotion are
movements but all
movements are not
locomotion.
WHAT IS LOCOMOTION?
Locomotion & movement are interlinked. E.g.
• In Paramoecium, cilia help in the movement of food through cytopharynx
and in locomotion.
• Hydra use tentacles to capture prey and for locomotion.
• Limbs help to change body postures and for locomotion.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN HUMAN
• By pseudopodia formed by streaming of protoplasm.
AMOEBOID • Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments also help for this.
MOVEMENT • E.g. Macrophages & leucocytes.
• By cilia.
CILIARY • E.g. cilia in trachea (to remove foreign substances) &
MOVEMENT
oviducts (for passage of ova).
MUSCULAR • By muscles.
MOVEMENT • E.g. movements of limbs, tongue, jaw etc.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN HUMAN
• By pseudopodia formed by streaming of protoplasm.
AMOEBOID
Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments also help for this.
MOVEMENT • E.g. Macrophages & leucocytes. etc.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN HUMAN
• By cilia.
CILIARY • E.g. cilia in trachea (to remove foreign substances) &
MOVEMENT
oviducts (for passage of ova).
Inside
Inner lining
fallopian
of trachea
tube
TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN HUMAN
MUSCULAR • By muscles.
MOVEMENT • E.g. movements of limbs, tongue, jaw etc.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN HUMAN
Sperm Euglena
• Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa,
maintenance of water current in the canal system of sponges and
in locomotion or Protozoans like Euglena.
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• It includes muscles which are
mesodermal in origin.
• Muscles constitute 40-50% of
the body weight.
• Muscles have excitability,
contractility, extensibility &
elasticity.
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Based on location, muscles are 3 types:
TYPES OF MUSCLES
Skeletal Visceral (Non-
(Striated or striated or Cardiac
voluntary) Smooth)
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Skeletal (striated) muscles
• Attached to skeleton
• Striations present
• Voluntary
• Rich blood supply
• Fatigue muscle
• Muscle fibre is multinucleate
(syncitium)
• More mitochondria
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Visceral (smooth) muscles
• In visceral organs
• Striations absent
• Involuntary
• Poor blood supply
• Non-fatigue
• Uninucleate
• Less mitochondria
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Cardiac muscles
• Found only in heart wall
• Striations present
• Involuntary
• Rich blood supply
• Non-fatigue
• Uninucleate
• More mitochondria
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Comparison of muscles: At a glance
Skeletal (striated) muscles Visceral (smooth) muscles Cardiac muscles
Attached to skeleton In visceral organs In heart wall
Striations present Striations absent Striations present
Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Rich blood supply Poor blood supply Rich blood supply
Fatigue muscle Non-fatigue Non-fatigue
Multinucleate (syncitium) Uninucleate Uninucleate
More mitochondria Less mitochondria More mitochondria
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED
MUSCLE
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
• Skeletal muscle is made of many muscle
bundles (fascicles).
• Fascicles are held together by collagenous
connective tissue layer (fascia).
Myofibril
• Each fascicle contains many muscle fibres.
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
• Muscle fibres are lined by plasma
membrane (sarcolemma) enclosing the
sarcoplasm.
• Each muscle fibre contains parallelly
Myofibril arranged myofilaments (myofibrils).
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
• Each myofibril has alternate
dark (Anisotropic or A-band)
and light striations (Isotropic or
I-band).
• This is due to the presence of 2
fibrous contractile proteins-
thin Actin filament and thick
Myosin filament.
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
• I-bands contain actin.
• A-bands contain actin & myosin.
• They are arranged parallel to
each other.
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
• A-band bears a lighter middle
region called H-band. It is
formed of only myosin.
• A thin dark line (M-line) runs
through the centre of H-zone.
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
• I-band is bisected by a dense
dark band called Z-line.
• Region between two Z-lines is
called sarcomere.
• Sarcomeres are the structural
and functional units of a muscle.
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
• I-band is bisected by a dense
dark band called Z-line.
• Region between two Z-lines is
called sarcomere.
• Sarcomeres are the structural
and functional units of a muscle.
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
1. Actin
• An actin filament is made of 2
filamentous (F) actins which
form double helix.
• F actin is a polymer of
monomeric Globular (G) actins.
• Actin contains 2 other proteins
namely tropomyosin &
troponin.
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
1. Actin
• Two filaments of tropomyosin run
along the grooves of the F-actin
double helix.
• Troponin has 3 subunits. It is
located at regular intervals on the
tropomyosin.
• In the resting state, a subunit of
troponin masks the binding sites
for myosin on the actin filaments.
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
2. Myosin
• Each myosin filament is a polymer
of many monomeric proteins
called Meromyosins.
• A meromyosin has 2 parts:
• Heavy meromyosin or HMM or
cross arm (globular head +
short arm): It projects
outwards.
• Light meromyosin or LMM (tail).
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
2. Myosin
• The globular head is an active
ATPase enzyme. It has binding
sites for ATP and active sites
for actin.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
According to sliding filament theory, contraction of a muscle fibre occurs by
the sliding of the thin filaments (actin) over the thick filaments (myosin).
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION STEPS
Neuromuscular
junction
1. An impulse from CNS reaches the neuromuscular junction (Motor-end
plate) via motor neuron.
• Neuromuscular junction: Synapse between a motor neuron & sarcolemma of muscle fibre.
• A motor neuron + muscle fibres = a motor unit.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION STEPS
2. Synaptic vesicles release a neurotransmitter Acetylcholine.
3. It generates an action potential in the sarcolemma that spreads through the
muscle fibre.
4. It causes the release of Ca2+ ions from sarcoplasmic cisternae into sarcoplasm.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION STEPS
5. Ca binds with a subunit of troponin on actin filaments and unmask the active
sites for myosin.
6. Using the energy from ATP hydrolysis, myosin head binds to active sites on the
actin to form cross bridge. This pulls the actin filaments on both sides towards
the centre of ‘A’ band. Actin filaments partially overlap so that H-zone disappears.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION STEPS
7. The Z- line attached to actins is also pulled inwards. It causes the shortening
(contraction) of sarcomere.
8. I bands get shortened and A bands retain the length.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION STEPS
9. Myosin releases the ADP and Pi and goes back to its relaxed state. A new
ATP binds and the cross-bridge is broken.
10. The ATP is again hydrolyzed by the myosin head and the above processes
are repeated causing further sliding.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION STEPS
• When Ca2+ ions are pumped back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae, the actin
filaments are again masked. As a result, Z lines return to their original
position. It results in relaxation.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
• The reaction time of the
fibres varies in different
muscles.
• Repeated activation of the
muscles leads to the
accumulation of lactic acid. It
causes muscle fatigue.
• This is due to anaerobic
breakdown of glycogen in
muscles.
RED MUSCLE FIBRES & WHITE MUSCLE FIBRES
Red (Aerobic) muscle fibres White muscle fibres
Red coloured due to myoglobin. White coloured due to lesser myoglobin.
More mitochondria. Less mitochondria.
Aerobic metabolism. Anaerobic metabolism.
Slow and sustained contraction. Fast contraction for short period.
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Consists of a framework of bones
(206) and few cartilages.
• Bone has a very hard matrix due
to Ca salts.
• Cartilage has slightly pliable
matrix due to chondroitin salts.
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
Axial Skeleton (80 bones) Appendicular skeleton (126 bones)
Bones of Bones of
Bones of Vertebral Pectoral Pelvic
Sternum Ribs fore- hind
head column girdle girdle
limbs limbs
1. AXIAL SKELETON 1. Bones of Head (29 bones)
SKULL
It includes
Skull (22 bones)
Hyoid (1 bone)
Ear ossicles (3x2 = 6 bones)
1. AXIAL SKELETON 1. Bones of Head (29 bones)
a. Skull (22)
Include cranial bones and facial bones.
• Cranial bones (8): Include frontal
(1), Parietals (2), Temporal (2),
Occipitals (1), Sphenoid (1) &
Ethmoid (1)
• Facial bones (14): Include nasals (2),
Maxillae (2), Zygomatics (2),
Lachrymals (2), Palatines (2), Inferior
nasals (2), Mandible (1), Vomer (1)
1. AXIAL SKELETON 1. Bones of Head (29 bones)
a. Skull (22)
Include cranial bones and facial bones.
• Cranial bones (8): Include frontal
(1), Parietals (2), Temporal (2),
Occipitals (1), Sphenoid (1) &
Ethmoid (1)
• Facial bones (14): Include nasals (2),
Maxillae (2), Zygomatics (2),
Lachrymals (2), Palatines (2), Inferior
nasals (2), Mandible (1), Vomer (1)
1. AXIAL SKELETON 1. Bones of Head (29 bones)
b. Hyoid bone (1)
• U-shaped bone found at the floor
of buccal cavity.
1. AXIAL SKELETON 1. Bones of Head (29 bones)
c. Ear ossicles (3x2 =6)
• Maleus (2), Incus (2) and stapes (2)
1. AXIAL SKELETON 1. Bones of Head (29 bones)
Occipital
condyle
Atlas
The skull articulates with first
vertebra (atlas) of vertebral column
with the help of 2 occipital condyles
(dicondylic skull).
1. AXIAL SKELETON 2. Vertebral column
• Formed of 26 vertebrae.
• They are 5 types:
• Cervical vertebrae (7)
• Thoracic vertebrae (12)
• Lumbar vertebrae (5)
• Sacral vertebrae (1-fused)
• Coccygeal vertebrae (1-fused)
1. AXIAL SKELETON 2. Vertebral column
• Vertebra has a central hollow
portion (neural canal) through
which the spinal cord passes.
• Number of cervical vertebrae are 7
in almost all mammals.
• Vertebral column protects spinal
cord, supports the head and
serves as the point of attachment
for the ribs and musculature of the
back.
1. AXIAL SKELETON 3. Sternum (Breast bone)
A Flat bone on the ventral
midline of thorax.
1. AXIAL SKELETON 4. Ribs (12 pairs)
3 types:
True ribs (first 7 pairs)
Vertebrochondral (false) ribs
(8th, 9th & 10th pairs)
Floating ribs (11th & 12th pairs)
1. AXIAL SKELETON 4. Ribs (12 pairs)
• Each rib has 2 articulation surfaces on
its dorsal end. So it is called
bicephalic.
• True ribs are attached to thoracic
vertebrae and ventrally connected to
sternum with the help of Hyaline
cartilage.
• False ribs do not articulate directly
with the sternum but join the 7th rib
with the help of Hyaline cartilage.
• Floating ribs are not connected
ventrally.
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 1. Bones of fore-limbs
• 30 x 2 = 60 bones.
• They include
• Humerus (1)
• Radius(1) & ulna (1)
• Carpals (wrist bones- 8)
• Metacarpals (palm bones-5)
• Phalanges (digits-14)
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 2. Bones of Hind-limbs
• 30 x 2 = 60 bones
• They include
• Femur (thigh bone- 1)
• Patella (knee cap- 1)
• Tibia (1) & fibula (1)
• Tarsals (ankle bones-7)
• Metatarsals (5)
• Phalanges (digits-14)
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 3. Pectoral girdles
• 2 x 2 = 4 bones
• They are formed of
• Clavicle (collar bone-2)
• Scapula (shoulder blade-2)
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 3. Pectoral girdles
• Scapula is a large triangular flat bone
situated in dorsal part of the thorax
between second and 7th ribs.
• Scapula has a slightly elevated ridge
(spine) which projects as a flat,
expanded process called the
acromion. The clavicle articulates
with this.
• Below the acromion is a depression
(glenoid cavity) which articulates with
the head of humerus to form the
shoulder joint.
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 4. Pelvic girdles
• 2 x 1 = 2 bones
• Formed of 2 coxal bones.
• Each coxal bone is formed by
the fusion of 3 bones- Ilium,
Ischium & pubis.
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 4. Pelvic girdles
• At the point of fusion of Ilium,
Ischium & Pubis is a cavity
(Acetabulum) to which the thigh
bone articulates.
• The 2 halves of the pelvic girdle
meet ventrally to form pubic
symphisis containing fibrous
cartilage.
JOINTS
• Joints are points of contact
between bones, or between
bones and cartilages.
• They are 3 types:
• Fibrous (Immovable) joints
• Cartilaginous (Slightly
movable) joints
• Synovial (movable) joints
JOINTS 1. Fibrous joints
• Immovable joints.
• E.g. sutures between flat
skull bones.
JOINTS 2. Cartilaginous joints
• Slightly movable joints.
• Bones are joined together with
the help of cartilages.
• E.g. Joints between the
adjacent vertebrae.
JOINTS 3. Synovial joints
• Movable joints.
• They are characterized by the
presence of a fluid filled
synovial cavity between
articulating surfaces of the 2
bones.
JOINTS 3. Synovial joints
Types of Synovial Examples
joints
Ball & socket joint Shoulder joint & hip joint.
Hinge joint Knee joint, elbow joint etc.
Pivot joint Joints b/w atlas & axis.
Gliding joint Joints b/w carpals.
Joints b/w carpal &
Saddle joint
metacarpal of thumb.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR
AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR & SKELETAL SYSTEMS
Myasthenia gravis
• Auto immune disorder.
• It affects neuromuscular junction.
• It leads to fatigue, weakening & paralysis
of skeletal muscles.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR & SKELETAL SYSTEMS
Muscular dystrophy
• Progressive degeneration of
skeletal muscles.
• Mostly due to genetic disorder.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR & SKELETAL SYSTEMS
Tetany
• It is the rapid spasm in
muscle due to low Ca2+ in
body fluid.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR & SKELETAL SYSTEMS
Arthritis
• It is the inflammation of
joints.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR & SKELETAL SYSTEMS
Osteoporosis
• Age-related disorder
characterized by decreased
bone mass and increased
chances of fractures.
• Decreased level of estrogen is
a common cause.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR & SKELETAL SYSTEMS
Gout
• It is the inflammation of
joints due to accumulation of
uric acid crystals.
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