Unit 1 Mechanical Energy

Unit 2 Elastic Properties of Solids

Unit 3 Elastic Properties of Solids
Unit 4 Measurement of Temperature
Unit 5 Transfer of Heat and Heat Capacities
Unit 6 Latent Heat and Evaporation
Unit 7 Expansion of Gases

UNIT 1 MECHANICAL ENERGY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Forms of Energy and World Energy Sources
3.1.1 Concept of Energy
3.1.2 Energy Sources
3.1.3 Form of Energy
3.2 Concept and Measurement of Work
3.2.1 Concept of Work
3.2.2 Measurement of Work
3.2.3 Work Done in a Force Field
3.3 Concept and Measurement of Energy
3.3.1 Concept of Mechanical Energy
3.3.2 Potential Energy (P-E)
3.3.3 Kinetic Energy (K.E)
3.3.4 Measurement of Energy
3.4 Concept and Measurement of Power
3.5 Transformation and Conservation of Mechanical Energy
3.5.1 The Law of Conservation of Energy
3.5.2 The Principle of Conservation of Mechanical
Energy
3.5.3 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy of a
Falling Body
3.5.4 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy involved
in a Swinging Pendulum
3.6 Applications of Mechanical Energy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the concepts of work, energy, power and
their measurements. You will learn the forms and sources of energy.
Furthermore, you will learn in depth about mechanical energy, its types
and transformation. Finally, you will learn to treat mechanical energy,
work and power quantitatively.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the time you finish this unit, you will be able to:

• explain work, energy and power and give examples of each

• calculate
 the work done, given a force and displacement it produces in
its direction
 the gravitational potential energy at a height h above a given
reference plane
• calculate the power in watts given an applied force and the time it
takes to produce a displacement
• identify the type of energy possessed by a body under given
conditions
• distinguish between kinetic and potential energy
• identity energy transformation from one form into another
• state the law of conservation of energy
• calculate the kinetic energy of a body
• calculate the potential energy of a body
• show that the total energy is conserved for a given set of data on
the energy of a particle in a conservative field
• verify the conservation of energy principle.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Forms of Energy and World Energy Sources

3.1.1 Concept of Energy

Energy is the mainspring of all life and of all the activities of mankind.
It may be defined as an ability or capacity to perform work. You use
energy in your home in the following ways:

• Chemical energy stored in the food you eat helps you in walking,
playing, doing household work and other duties.
• Chemical energy in wood or load or kerosene is converted by
combustion to heat energy for cooking your food, and heating
purposes.
• Light energy that falls on your eyes enables you to see things;
• Sound energy that enters your ears makes you hear;
• Electrical energy operates most appliances such as fan, TV sets,
radios, electric pressing irons, refrigerators and other appliances
in your home.

3.1.2 Energy Sources

You know that the sun is the main source of energy in the universe.
However, we can identify other sources which we have classified under:

• Natural sources which include food, sun, wood, coals, natural

gas, oils and fats, tides/waves, wind, waters.
• Manufactured sources include energy from batteries, generators,
electricity from the mains.
• Petroleum products include that from kerosene, gasoline and
refinery gases (methane, ethane, propane and butane).

3.1.3 Forms of Energy

You are aware that energy can exist in different forms. Among these
are:

• Chemical energy (stored in food and other fuels)

• Kinetic energy (associated with motion).
• Gravitational potential energy (associated with height above the
ground).
• Elastic potential energy (stored in springs, rubbers, stretched
bows, catapults).
• Nuclear energy (stored in nucleus of atoms).
• Heat energy (flows from one point to another as a result of
temperature difference between the point.
• Sound energy (produced by vibrating objects – violins, guitars,
piano, drums).
• Light energy (produced by light bulbs)
• Mechanical energy (associated with machines at work)
• Electrical energy (taken in by TV set and other electrical
appliances).
• Magnetic energy (associated with magnetism)
• Solar energy (associated with the sun).

3.2 Concept and Measurement of Work

3.2.1 Concept of Work

 i.e. S Cos θ

⇒ W = F Cos 0 x S or F x S Cos θ (3)

When the force and the motion are in the same direction, θ = 0;

W = F x S Cos 0

=FxS (4)

But, if the force is at right angles to the displacement, it has no

component in the direction of the displacement. Hence,

F Cos 90 = 0; work done = 0.

3.2.3 Work Done in a Force Field

(a) Lifting a body

(b) Falling bodies

(a) Lifting a body

You know that to lift a body through a height h, a pulling force must be
applied to overcome the weight of the body. When an object is lifted
upwards vertically, work is done against the force of gravity or against
the weight of the body. You will obtain the magnitude of the work done
from
Work = force x distance

= mg x h

= mgh (5)

where m = mass of the body,

g = acceleration due to gravity

h = height

(b) Falling bodies

When a body falls freely under gravity, we say that the earth’s
gravitational force does work on the body. For instance, if a body of
mass m, falls through a vertical distance h, the work done by gravity on
the body is obtained from.

W = mgh.

Also, if a body of mass m rolls down a hill of height h and length l, the
work done is mgh. In this case, you will still use the vertical height (h)
in the calculation and not the length of the slope ℓ

Worked examples

1. A body of weight 200 N falls freely through a height of 10 m, what

is the work done?

Solution

Work done = mgh

Weight (force) = 200N, height = 10 m

Work done = 200N x 10 m = 2000 J

(2) A boy lifts a load of weight 200N through a vertical height of 1 m

before putting it on his load. When he finds that the load is too
heavy to carry him quickly drops the load in its original place.
What is the work done by the boy ?

∴ Solution

Work done = zero.

Reason: No displacement.

(3) A load is pulled 7 m along a horizontal floor by a constant force

of 30N which acts at 400 to the horizontal.

Calculate the work done by the force.

Solution
 Work done = F Cos θ x S

F = 300N; θ = 40o ; S = 7 m

. . Work done = 30 Cos 40o x 7

= 30 x 0 .766 x 7

= 160.87J

3.3 Concept and Measurement of Energy

3.3.1 Concept of Mechanical Energy

We have already said that anything capable of doing work has energy.
This means that a person pushing a car along the road is doing work on
the car. So far as the car moves some distance. A mango fruit falling
from the top of the tree does work and therefore possess energy.

Can you mention other situations in which the application of force cause
a body to move. All of them possess energy.

There are many forms of energy but here, you will concentrate on the
study of mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy is classified into two types namely Potential Energy

and Kinetic Energy.

3.3.2 Potential Energy (P.E)

Potential energy is simply ‘stored energy’ or energy possessed by a

body by virtue of its position or state.

The stored energy is used to do work when the body is free to move
Examples of potential energy are:

• a magnet at rest in a magnetic field (magnetic potential energy).

• An electric charge at rest in an electric field (electric potential
energy).
• a coiled spring when stretched or compressed (elastic potential
energy.
• petrol, wood, and other fuel sources burn when they burn,
chemical potential energy is released,
• a body at rest in a gravitational field e.g. a mango fruit on a
mango tree, gravitational potential energy.
3.3.3 Kinetic Energy (K.E)

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.

Examples of kinetic energy are;

- a student running a race.

- an object falling freely under gravity.
- electrical charges in motion.
- any object in motion.

3.3.4 Measurement of Energy

(i) Potential energy (P.E)

(ii) Kinetic energy (K.E)

(i) Measurement of Potential Energy (P.E)

Gravitational potential energy as you know depends on the weight and

height of an object above the surface of the earth. To lift an object at a
constant speed under gravity, you must exert a force, which is equal to
its weight. The work you do when you lift a body of mass m at a
uniform speed through a height h is mgh. The work done in lifting the
body to a height h, is stored and can be recovered in the form of kinetic
energy by allowing the body to fall through a distance h. The potential
energy of a body is not an absolute quantity. You will measure its
magnitude relative to some reference position.

To measure the gravitational potential energy P.E of a body, you will

measure the mass of the body and its height above a reference level h.
This is given by
P.E = mgh.

The potential energy of an object in other force fields which act on the
object is calculated in much the same way. First, you will select a
reference point and then obtain the potential energy at some other point
as the work done in moving from the reference point to the position of
the body in the force field.

ii Measurement of Kinetic Energy (K.E)

The kinetic energy of a body in motion depends on both its mass m and
speed v. To obtain the kinetic energy of a body in motion you will use
the formula
K.E = 1/2 mv2 ........................…(6)

For you to obtain a value for the kinetic energy of a body you will know
its mass and speed. For instance, suppose an object of mass m moves
with a horizontal velocity u and is gradually brought to rest in a distance
S by a constant horizontal force F acting on it. The kinetic energy of the
body has been used in doing work against the opposing force F.
Therefore, kinetic energy originally possessed by the body

= work done against F

=FxS
But F = ma

where a = retardation of the object.

Hence F

F x S = Mas

You will recall from the relation

V2 = U2 + 2as

That since v = 0, a is negative (i.e. retardation)

Therefore,

V2 = U2 + 2as becomes 0 + u2 – 2as

⇒ U2 + as
2
Also,
KE + F x S = mas

You can now substitute ½ u2 for as in the above. When you do that,

K.E becomes

K.E = F x S + mas = ½ mu2

ie K.E = ½ mu2 ..................................…(7)

kinetic energy = ½ x mass x (velocity)2

Worked Examples

1. A bullet of mass 0.5 kg was fired with a speed of 300 m/s.

Calculate its kinetic energy.

Solution

K.E = ½ mv2 (m = 0.5 kg, v = 300ms-1)

= ½ x 0.5 x (300)2

= 22500J
=====

2. A body of mass 50 kg is raised to a height of 15 m. What

is the potential energy of the body (g = 9.8 m/s-2).

Solution

P.E = mgh

= 50 x 9.8 x 15 (m = 50 kg, g = 9.8 ms-1 h = 15m)

= 7350J
====

3.4 Concept and Measurement of Power

Let us consider two boys Chika and Ali who are carrying an equal load
mb each from the ground floor to the first floor of a building. The
amount of work done by Chika and Ali in lifting is exactly the same.
However, if Chika accomplishes the task before Ali, we say that Chika
works at a faster rate than Ali. That is, Chika has more power than Ali.

Also, you do the same amount of work in lifting your weight when you
climb up a staircase 10 metres high either in 15 seconds or in 25
seconds. But, you do not work at the same rate. You work faster when
you climb it in 15 second ss than in 25 second. In Physics, the work
done in unit time is called power.

- Power is defined as the rate of doing work or using energy.

Power = Work done or energy expended
Time taken
Usually, work is measured in joules and time in seconds, so, power is
expressed in joules per second. One joule per second = 1 watt.
Therefore, work is measured in watts (W).

A power of one watt is too small for practical use. So, we usually
measure power in a larger unit called a kilowatt (KW).

Worked Example

1. A boy of mass 25 kg walks up a flight of stairs 8 metres high in

32 seconds, calculate the power of the boy (g = 9.8 ms-2)

Solution

Power = Work done

Time taken

Work done = mgh = 25 kg x 9.8 ms -2 x 8 m

Time taken = t = 32 s.

∴ Power = 25 x 9.8 x 8 = 1960

32 32 = 61.25
W
======

3.5 Transformation and Conservation of Mechanical Energy

3.5.1 The Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy states that in an isolated or closed

system, the total amount of energy is always constant, although energy
may be changed from one form to another.

When we talk about an isolated or closed system, we mean a group of

objects that neither receives energy from nor gives energy to objects
outside the system.

For mechanical energy being considered here, the law simply shows that
the sum of the P.E. and K.E is always constant for a given body, but the
energy may change from P.E to K.E or from K.E to P.E.

3.5.2 The Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy in a

Conservative Field
You will note that the above principle is true in a conservative field. An
important aspect of a conservative force is that the work done by such a
force is recoverable. For example, if you do a work against a
gravitational force in raising a body to a height h above the ground, that
work is recovered when the body falls a distance h back to its original
position.

The earth’s gravitational field is an example of field containing

conservative forces. In such a conservative field, total mechanical
energy is conserved.

Friction is an example of a non-conservative force. We noticed that

when friction acts between the moving parts of a machine, some
mechanical energy is lost but it reappears in the form of heat and the
total energy which is now mechanical plus thermal energy remains
constant.

The general principle of the conservation of energy states that the total
energy in a given system is always constant or energy can neither be
created nor destroyed although it can be transformed from one form to
another.

3.5.3 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy of a Falling

Body

h
l

Fig.1. 2: Conservation of mechanical energy

Here, let us consider a body of mass m at rest at a point A, of height h

above the ground level. As the body falls, its PE changes into KE.
What it loses in PE is equal to what it gains in KE
At A the total energy is all PE and is given by mgh. There is no KE
because the body is at rest.
 Total energy at A = mgh

If the ball falls to another point B at height l above the ground,

P.E at B = mgl
and
K.E at B = ½ mvB2

V B 2 = u2 + 2 gS
= 0 + 2 g (h-l)

∴ K.E = ½ mv B 2 = ½ m x 2 g (h-l) = mg (h-l)

Total energy, P.E + K.E =mgl + mg (h-l)

= mgh

At C, the lowest level, h = 0

P.E = mg x 0 = 0
K.E = ½ mv C 2
Usually v C 2 =u2 + 2 bs, we have
V2c = 0 + 2 gh

K.E = ½ m x 2 gh = mgh

Total energy = P.E + K.E = mgh

As you have seen, the total energy of the body at each point A, B, or C
is a constant (mgh) although the energy is all potential at A, partly
potential and partly kinetic at B and all kinetic at C. The total
mechanical energy is therefore constant or conserved in a conservative
field.
3.5.4 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy Involved in a
Swinging Pendulum

A
B
h
K.E = O D
P.E. = mgh
C K.E = O
(P.E. = mgh
P.E. = O
P.E is max.)
K.E = ½ mv2
(K.E. is max. at C )

Fig. 1.3: Energy transformation in the motion of a simple pendulum

Now we will consider energy transformation in the motion of a

swinging pendulum. A simple pendulum consists of a bob attached to a
string the other end of which is suspended from a firm, a support. When
the pendulum swings from end to end, the energy of the system changes
from potential to kinetic and vice versa. At each stage of the swing, the
total energy remains constant.

The pendulum swings from the highest point A through the centre of the
swing C to the other highest point B,

At C, the bob is at the lowest position. Therefore, the P.E of the system
is zero. Also at C, the speed of the pendulum is maximum and so the
K.E is maximum at this point. That is,

At C,
P.E = 0
K.E = ½ mv2 (maximum).

As the bob moves from C to B, the K.E at C is gradually transformed to

P.E with the P.E becoming maximum at B which is at a height h above
C.
At the B, the total energy is potential energy and is equal to mgh. This
is also the P.E at A which is at the same height above C as B. That is,

At B and A,

P.E = mgh (max)

K.E = 0

You can find the maximum velocity of the swinging bob that occurs as
the bob passes through C. If you take this Velocity to the v max, since
total energy is always conserved, you will have:

½ mv2 max = mgh

(K.E at C) = (P.E at A or B)
Therefore,

V2 max = 2 gh

V max = √ 2 gh ..............................................… (8)

You have seen that at A and B, the energy is all P.E. At C, energy is all
K.E. At any intermediate point such as D, the energy is partly potential
and partly kinetic. At each point however, the total energy (P.E + K.E)
is constant and is equal to mgh.

Here also, you have seen that the total energy of the body remains
constant. Although there is transformation of energy from P.E to K.E,
but, there is no loss or gain in its total energy. This confirms the law of
conservation of energy.

However, you will observe from experience that a pendulum bob left
swinging on its own will eventually come to rest after some time. This
is because its energy is gradually used up in moving the air around it.
That is, in doing work against air resistance.

Worked example

A stone of mass 500 g is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 30

ms-1

Find (a) the potential energy possessed by the stone at its greatest
height; (b) the kinetic energy of the stone just before it hits the ground.

(g = 9.8 ms-2)
Solution

(a) Using v2 = u2 + 2 gS

where v = 0 ms-1 (stone momentarily at rest).

g = - g (because it acts in opposite direction to that of u)

When you substitute for v and g in the equation above, you

obtain

0 = u2= + 2( - g) S
0 = u2 – 2g S
2g S = u2
S = u2
2g

U = 30 ms-1, g = 9.8 ms-2

and

S = (30 ms-1)2
2 x 9.8 ms2 = 45.92 m
=====

This is the greatest height reached by the stone. Therefore, the potential
energy of the stone at a height, h, of 45.92 m is given by

Potential energy = mgh

= 0.5 kg x 9.8 ms-2 x 45.92 m

= 225 J
====

The potential energy possessed by the stone at its greatest height is 225J

The kinetic energy of the stone just before it hits the ground equals the
potential energy possessed by the stone at its greatest height i.e. 225 J.
This is also the potential energy of the stone in falling through a height
45.92 m to the ground.
3.6 Pendulum

3.6.1 Applications of Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is applied in the working principles of machines

where forces move over distances. You learned about this extensively
in Module 2 Unit 4.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1 Define the terms work, energy and power.

2 a. State the principle of the conservation of mechanical

energy.
b. How is the law illustrated by

(i) the swing of a simple pendulum?

(ii) the energy of a falling orange?

3. A cable car is pulled up a slope by a constant force of 5000 N at a

uniform speed of 6 m/s. It takes 4 minutes to complete the
journey.

(a) How much work is done in getting the car to the top of the
slope?
(b) How much work could be done if the speed were 12 m/s
(the force remaining the same)?
(c) How does the power developed in (a) compare with (b)?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you learned about work, energy and power. You also
learned in depth mechanical energy and its conservation.

5.0 SUMMARY

You have learned in this unit that

• Work is Force (F) x Displacement(S) in the direction of force. If

F and S are inclined at an angle θ, then work done (W) = Fs Cos
θ. It is measured in joules.
• Energy is capacity to do work. It is measured in joules.
• Mechanical energy can be classified as kinetic energy and
potential energy
• Potential Energy is the energy due to position. P.E = mgh;
• Kinetic energy is the energy due to motion. K.E = ½ mv2
• Power is the rate at which work is done. It is also the rate at
which energy is expended. It is measured in watt.
• The total energy in the universe is constant.
• The principle of the conservation of mechanical energy states that
in a closed or isolated system, the total mechanical energy is
always constant, although energy may change from P.E to K.E or
vice versa.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What kind of energy is possessed by:

(a) the wheel of a moving motor car?

(b) a man standing on the roof of a car?
(c) cooking gas?
(d) a ball rolling down a slope?
(e) Music

2 (a) In every day life we say that you have great power if you
have great strength or much authority such as a senate
president. Is the scientific meaning of power the same as
its everyday meaning? Give reasons for your answer.

(b) Friction is often used to slow down objects. Is friction used

for this purpose doing work? Give a reason for your answer.

3. A boy weighing 200 N climbs a staircase that is 20 m long and

reaches a height of 8 m. How much work has he done to raise his
height. What happens to his kinetic energy at the end of the
climb? (Take g = 9.8 ms-2).

4. If you weigh 75 kg and in 5s you can run up a flight of stairs

consisting of 36 steps, each 15 cm high, what is your power?
(Take g = 9.8 ms-2)
5 (a) State the Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
(b) On what factors do the measurement of
(i) kinetic energy
(ii) Potential energy of a body depend.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anyakoha, M.W. (2000). New School Physics for Senior Secondary
Schools. Onitsha: Africana FEP..

Nelkon, M. (1986). Principles of Physics for Senior secondary Schools.

England: Longman.

Ravi, K.; George, K.O., Hui, T.C. (1987). New School Physics
Certificate Science Series. Singapore: FEB International Private.

Ewelukwa, G.O., Odunze, G.A., Anozie, A.C. (1995). Revision

Integrated Science for JSC Examinations Onitsha: Africana FEP.

CESAC (1971). Nigerian Secondary School Science Project Physics

Textbook as Teachers Guide.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Roller Coaster Energy Analysis

A roller coaster car of mass 500 kg starts from rest at a height of 30 m. It descends without
friction along the track.

a) State the principle of conservation of energy.

b) Calculate the potential energy of the car at the top of the first hill.
c) Using conservation of energy, determine the speed of the car at the bottom of the hill.
d) If the car then climbs another hill to a height of 20 m, calculate its speed at that point.
e) A brake applies a constant force to bring the car to a stop over 10 m. Calculate the braking
force using the work-energy theorem.
f) Define kinetic and potential energy with examples from the roller coaster motion.
g) Suggest how this concept can be demonstrated in a lab using a pendulum, and identify a
source of error.
h) Why is friction often ignored in theoretical roller coaster calculations, and how is it
compensated for in real-world design?
UNIT 2 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Elasticity
3.1.1 Hook’s Law
3.1.2 Statement of Hook’s Law
3.2 Verification and Demonstration of Hook’s Law
3.3 Graph of Extension against Load for a Permanently
Strained Elastic Material
3.4 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
3.5 Work Done in Spring and Elastic String
3.6 Elastic Potential Energy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In Module 1 unit 2, we studied the particle nature of matter and stated

that particles that make solids are closely packed together and held in
relatively fixed positions by strong intermolecular forces. As a result of
these forces, it is not easy to dislodge the molecule of a solid because
any external force applied on the solid is stiffly resisted by the
intermolecular forces. In this unit, we shall study the behaviour of those
solids which change their shape or size when a sufficiently strong
external force is applied to them and return to their original shape or size
when the applied force is removed. Specifically we shall study Hooke’s
law which governs the relationship between the stretching force and the
extension produced by it in an elastic material. We shall also discuss
Young’s modulus of elasticity and study the work done in stretching or
compressing spring and elastic strings.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit you will be able to:

• explain the elastic properties of substances

• state Hooke’s law and explain the meaning of the terms such as
stress, strain, elastic limit, young’s modulus
• describe and carry out an experiment to verify Hooke’s law
• draw a graph of load versus extension for an elastic material

 before the elastic limit is reached, and

 beyond the elastic limit

• solve simple problems on Hooke’s law and on work done in

stretching or compressing a spring and elastic string.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Elasticity

Solids tend to change their shape or size when sufficiently strong

external forces are applied to them and to return to their original shape
or size after the forces causing the change are removed. Solids which
retain their shape or size after the force causing the change has been
removed are said to be ‘elastic’, and this property of solids is called
elasticity.

Definitions

(1) Elasticity is the ability of a substance to regain its original shape

and size after being distorted by an external force.

(ii) An elastic material is one that regains its original shape and size
after the distorting external force has been removed.

3.1.1 Hooke’s Law

3.1.2 Statement of Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s law states that, provided the elastic limit of an elastic material
is not exceeded, the extension, e, of the material is directly proportional
to the applied force, F.

Mathematically,
Fαe
i.e F = K e ………………………… (1)

where k is the constant of proportionality called elastic constant or force

constant or stiffness of the material.

From (1), K = F ………………………………….. (2)

e

If F is in newtons and e in metres, then K is in newtons per metre (Nm-1)

(iv) Add weights to the scale pan in equal steps of about 0.05 kg and
note and record the pointer reading for each increasing load. Note
that the total load stretching the spring in each instance is the
weight in the scale pan plus the weight of the scale pan.

(v) Remove the load from the scale pan in equal steps also and note
the record the corresponding pointer readings.

(vi) Record your readings as shown in the table below:

Scale reading
Load Load Load Average Extension
increasing decreasing reading

(vii) Plot a graph of extension against load. If the total maximum load
has not extended the spring permanently, the graph obtained will
be a straight line graph passing through the origin (Fig.2.1b).
Since the graph is a straight line, it means that the extension of
the spring is directly proportional to the load. Hence, Hook’s law
is verified.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1 Explain what is meant by (a) elasticity, and (b) elastic material?

2 State Hooke’s law and show how the law leads to the idea of
stiffness of the elastic material. State the unit (S.I.) in which
stiffness is measured, showing clearly how this unit may be
derived.

3 Describe an experiment to verify Hooke’s law using a graphical

method.
 4 Suppose you performed Hooke’s law experiment and obtained a
set of readings of loads and their corresponding extensions.
Sketch the graph of;

(a) Extension against load,

(b) Load against extension.

State two important similarities and one difference between the two
graphs.

3.3 Graph of Extension against Load for a Permanently

Strained Elastic Material
Load
Extension (a)

E
• •Y
•Y P
•
•E
P•

O
O Load Extension
P = Proportionality Limit
E = Elastic Limit
Y = Yield point
OE = Elastic Region
EB = Plastic Region
Fig. 2.2: Graphs of (a) extension against load (b) load against
extension up to breaking point

If, in the Hooke’s law experiment, you continue to increase the load
until the spring wire snaps or breaks, the graph of extension against load
will be as shown in figure 2.2 above. The graph is a straight line up to
OP, followed by the curved part PEYB which rises slowly initially and
then sharply.

Along OP, the straight portion of the graph, Hooke’s law is obeyed and
the extension is proportional to the load.
P is called the ‘proportionality limit’. However, up to the point E
(slightly above P) which is called the ‘elastic limit’. The spring will
return to its original length if the applied force is removed.

Definition

The elastic limit of an elastic material is the limit of force beyond which
the stretched material does not return to its original length when the
stretching force is removed.

Beyond the elastic limit, E, the material loses its elasticity. The region
OE from the origin to the elastic limit E is called the ‘elastic region’.
The difference between the ‘proportionality limit’ P and the ‘elastic
limit’ E is that, strictly speaking, Hooke’s law holds up to P, but
elasticity holds up to E.

Beyond E, the wire stretches rapidly with increasing load and then
enters the ‘elastic region’ which begins at E. In this ‘plastic region’ the
wire does not return to its original length upon removal of the stretching
force. At Y, the ‘yield point’ the material is said to have ‘yielded or lost
all elasticity permanently and has become ‘plastic’.

Definition

Yield point is the point beyond the elastic limit in which the elastic
material has yielded all its elasticity permanently and has become
plastic.

The difference between the “elastic region” (OE) and the “plastic
region” (EB) is that in a latter, a sudden and rapid increase in the
extension for any slight increase in load. B is the ‘breaking point’ where
the material may finally ‘break’ or ‘snap’. It corresponds to the
maximum possible extension that can be produced in the material.

Worked examples

1. A force of 10N is required to extend the length of a spiral spring

by 4 cm. Find the extension of the spring when a mass of 360 g is
suspended from its end (g = 10ms-2).
Solution

By Hook’s law, F = ke
∴ k= F
e

= 10N
0.04 m

when a body is suspended, the weight w should produce an extension, e

∴ W = mg = k x e

∴ e = mg
k

= 360kg x 10N
1000 kg

= 1000 N
4 m

= 1.44 x 10-2 m
= 1.44 cm.

2 An elastic material is stretched 45 mm by a force of 3 N.

Calculate the additional force which will stretch the material
50mm, if the elastic limit is not exceeded.

Solution

By Hook’s law, F = k.e

∴ k=F = 3N
e 45 x 10-3m

Let the force stretching the material 50 mm be F

∴ F = k.e
= k x 50 x 10-3m

= 3N x 50 x 10-3 m
45 x 10-3m 1
= 3.33N

∴ Additional force = (3.33 – 3.00) N

= 0.33 N
3.4 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Suppose a wire of length ℓ (m) and cross-sectional area A (m2) is

extended through e (m) by a force F (N).

(a) The ratio of the force to the area, F/A is called the stress or ‘tensile’
of the elastic material.

Stress = F …………………………(1)
A

(b) The ratio of the extension, e to the original length, ℓ of the wire
i.e e is called the tensile strain of the wire.
ℓ
∴ Strain = e …………………………………… (2)
ℓ
From (1) F = stress x A ……………………………….(3)

From (2) e = Strain x ℓ…………………………………(4)

By Hooke’s law, F = ke

∴ Stress x A = k x Strain x ℓ

∴ Stress = kℓ x strain
A

∴ Stress = k1 strain where k1 =

constant = kℓ
A
∴ Stress = 1
k …………………………………… (5)
Strain

OR

Stress α Strain

Hence Hooke’s law can also be stated as follows:

The tensile stress of the material is directly proportional to its tensile

strain provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.
The constant of proportionality, k1 (see equation (5) above) is called
Young’s modulus of elasticity and is represented by the symbol, ૪.

∴ Young’s modulus (૪) = Stress

Strain

∴ ૪ = F A
e

ℓ
The unit of ૪ is Nm (Newton per square metre) the same unit as
-2

stress, since strain has no unit.

Dimension of ૪ = Dimension of stress

Dimension of strain

= Dimension of stress

= Dimension of force
Dimension of Area

= MLT-2
L2

= ML-1T-2
3.5 Work Done in Springs and Elastic String

Natural
ι length
ι+e

Compression - e
p

e P1

load m

F = mg (N)

Fig. 2.3: Work done in extending or compressing a spring

Consider a spring of unstretched length, ℓ (m). Suppose a force F

(N) causes an extension (or compression) e (m). The force in the
wire has increased from an initial value of zero at P to a value of
F at ‘P’. The work (W) done in stretching the spring through the
extension is given by:

W = Average force x extension

= Initial force + final force x extension

2

∴W = O+Fxe
2

∴W = 1/2 Fe ………………………………… (1)

But F = ke (Hooke’s law)

∴W = 1/2 k.e2 ……………………………… (2)

This work done is stored as potential energy in the material which can
do work when the stretching force is removed and the material regains
its original length.
This type of stored energy is applied in the working of many spring
clocks and toys. The energy is stored in the clock spring (or toy spring)
which is compressed by winding.

3.6 Elastic Potential Energy

Definition

The elastic potential energy of a stretched or compressed material is the

ability of the material to do work.

Elastic potential energy arises because work is done in stretching or

compressing the material as we have seen in the previous section

W = 1/2 Fe = 1/2 ke2

Where F is the maximum stretching (or compressing) force, e is the

extension (or compression) and k is the force constant or stiffness of the
material.

Example (or application) of elastic potential energy:

When you stretch the rubber of a catapult and project a stone, the elastic
potential energy stored in the rubber is converted into the kinetic energy
of the flying stone according to the law of conservation of energy.

Worked examples

1. An elastic material is stretch 1.2 cm by a mass of 96g suspended

from one end of it. What is the elastic constant of the material?

Solution

Weight of object = stretching force

= 960 x 10 N (W = mg)
1000

= 9.6 N

Extension = 1.2 10-2 m

F = ke
= k x 1.2 x 10-2 N
 ∴ k = 9.6 Nm-1
1.2 x10-2

= 800 Nm-1

2. A spiral spring is compressed by an external force in such a way

that 0.08J of energy is stored in it. If the elastic constant of the
spring is 400Nm-1, calculate the compression of the spring.

Solution

Energy stored in the spring, W = Fe = 1/2

2
ke

W = 1 k e2
2
∴ 0.08J = 1 x 400N x e2
2

∴ e2 = 0.08 x 2 m2
400

∴ e = 0.02m

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Explain the terms (i)elasticity, (ii) elastic limit of a material.

A mass of 300 g is suspended from the lower end of an elastic

material. If the material extends by 6.0 cm, find the force needed
to produce an extension of 1.0 cm.

2. (a Define elasticity and state two reasons why this property is

useful in daily life.
(b Describe an experiment to illustrate the behaviour of an
elastic wire which is steadily loaded and forced to extend
its length beyond its elastic limit.
(c Sketch a graph of the relation between the extension of the
wire and the load attached to it gradually up to and beyond
the elastic limit.

3. (a States Hook’s law and mention the condition under which

it is obeyed.
(b Describe an experiment to test its validity in the laboratory
for a spiral spring.
 (c Explain briefly how the working of a spring balance
depends on Hooke’s law.
(d A helical spring is extended through 3.0 cm by a force of
40 N. Find (a) the force which will stretch it through
5.0 cm,
(b) the length through which a force of 100N will
extend it.

4. Defined the terms strain, stress and Young’s modulus.

One end of the steel wire of length 10.0 m and uniform cross-
sectional area 1.0 x 10-6m fixed to a rigid support. A force of
100N applied to the other end of the wire produces in it an
extension of 1.0 x 10-2 m. If Hooke’s law is obeyed, calculate (i)
the stress, (ii) the strain, (iii) the young’s Modulus for the metal.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you learned about elastic properties of solids. Specifically,

you learned about Hooke’s law, Young’ modulus of elasticity and their
definitions. You also learned about work done in spring/ string and
elastic potential energy

5.0 SUMMARY

1. ‘Elasticity’ is the property of a material which enables it to regain

its original shape and size after the force causing the deformation
has been removed.

2. ‘Hook’s law’ states that the extension of an elastic material is

directly proportional to the load or applied force causing the
extension, provided the elastic limit of the material is not
exceeded.

3. ‘Elastic limit’ is the maximum stretching force beyond which a

stretched elastic material would not return to its original length
when the force is removed.

4. ‘Yield point’ is the point at which the elastic material loses its
elasticity permanently and becomes plastic.

5. Work done in stretching or compressing a material is the same as

the energy stored in the material or its elastic potential energy and
is given by;
 W = 1 Fe
2
= 1 (maximum force) x extension
2
Also W = 1 ke2, since F = ke, from Hook’s law
2
‘Young’s modulus’ Y = Stress
Strain

= F A Nm-1
e ℓ

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. (a State Hook’s law and explain what is meant by elastic

limit.
(b A load of 2N produces an extension of 3.0 cm in a spiral
spring. Find the additional force which will stretch the
material by 3.5 cm.
2. (a) State the formula for the energy stored in an elastic
material in terms of; the force producing an extension in
the material.
(b) An electric material is compressed by 2.0 cm. If the elastic
constant of the material is 400 Nm-1, determine the elastic
potential energy stored in the material.
3. A stone of mass 5 g is projected with a rubber catapult. If the
catapult is stretched through a distance of 7 cm by an average
force of 70 N, calculate the instantaneous velocity of the stone.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anyakoha, M.W. (2000). New School Physics for Senior Secondary

Schools Onisha: Africana FEP Publishers Limited.

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1992). Comprehensive Certificate Physics

SSCE Edition, Ibadan: University Press.

Ndupu, B. L. N and Okeke, P. N. (2000). Round-up Physics for West

African Senior School Certificate Examination: A Complete
guide. Lagos. Longman Nigeria Plc.

Ndupu, B. L. N and Okeke, P. N. and Ladipo, O. A. (2000). Senior

Secondary Physics Book 1. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Plc.
UNIT 3 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Heat and Temperature
3.2. Effects of Heat
3.3 Kinetic Molecular Theory Statement of Hooke’s Law
3.3.1 Kinetic Theory Explanation of Temperature.
3.3.2 Kinetic Theory Explanation of Expansion.
3.3.3 Kinetic Molecular Theory Explanation of Change
of State
3.4 Expansivity
3.4.1 Linear Expansivity (α)
3.4.2 Determination of Linear Expansivity
3.4.3 Area Expansivity (β)
3.4.4 Volume or Cubic Expansivity (૪)
3.4.5 The Relationship between Linear Expansivity, Area
Expansivity and Cubic Expansivity
3.5 Some Applications of Expansion
3.6 Expansion of Liquids
3.6.1 Real and Apparent Expansivity
3.6.2 The Anomalous Expansion of Water
3.6.3 The Importance of Anomalous Expansion of Water
in Nature
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit will introduce you to the concepts of heat, temperature and
molecular theory. You will learn the effects of heat and change of state
and expansion, their explanation using the kinetic molecular theory.
Also, you will learn expansivity and explanation of temperature changes
using molecular theory. Finally, you will learn the applications of
expansivity in your daily life.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the time you finish this unit, you will be able to:

• explain temperature, expansion, change of state and vaporization

using the kinetic molecular theory
• solve simple problems involving linear, area and volume
expansivity.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Heat and Temperature

When you touch a kettle of boiling water, you will feel a burning
sensation. You will say that the water is hot. Also, if you hold ice block,
your hand feels chilly and you conclude that the water is cold. We
describe an object which has been given heat energy as hot. When we
place a kettle of cold water on a heating stove, after a few minutes, the
water feels hotter because it has been given heat energy. Similarly, we
describe as cold a body from which heat energy has been removed. For
instance, keeping a bottle of water in a refrigerator, you must have
experienced that heat always flows from a hot object to a cold object.

Heat energy is the energy that is transferred from a hot object to a cooler
object as a result of their difference in temperature.

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of an object.

Temperature is a property of an object which decides which way heat

will flow when it is placed in contact with another object. Usually heat
flows from a body of higher temperature to one at lower temperature.
The instrument for measuring temperature is the thermometer.

3.2 Effects of Heat

Here we look at some effects of heat on an object. You may have

identified some of this yourself in your everyday life. These effects are
summarized as follows:

Addition of heat to the body will cause:

(a) Change in temperature of the body except during a change of

state.
(b) Change of state of the body solid to liquid, liquid to gaseous
state.
(c) Expansion of the body.
(d) Change in the physical property of a body such as the electrical
resistance, magnetic properties conductivity, elasticity, density
and colour of the body.
(e) Themionic emission- the emission of electrons from the surface
of the metal.
(f) Change in chemical properties of the body.
(g) Changes in pressure and volume of gases.

3.3 Kinetic Molecular Theory

We consider kinetic molecular theory and its assumptions. In addition,

we use it to explain major concepts in this unit. The molecular theory of
matter assumes the matter is made up of atoms that aggregate in
molecules.

The molecule is a group of atoms of the same or different elements

joined together in a simple proportion. These molecules are under the
influence of two types of forces:

(i) Attractive forces which prevent the molecule from moving apart
and
(ii) repulsive forces which prevent the molecule from moving closer.
There is normally a balance between these forces in a substance.

In solid substances, the attractive forces between molecules are so

strong that the molecules do not move about freely. The molecules only
vibrate about their mean positions maintaining a fixed shape and
volume.

In liquids, the molecules are loosely held together by weak attractive

forces. The molecules are free to move about within the liquid and are
always in a state of random motion. Molecules of solids and liquids are
held together by intermolecular forces.

In gases, the force of attraction between the molecules is very weak. The
molecules are therefore in constant motion having overcome the
intermolecular force. They move very freely at a very high speed. They
are always in the state of random motion and take up the shape and
volume of their container.

The kinetic molecular theory assumes that:

(i) Every substance is made up of tiny particles called molecules

(ii) The molecules are in a constant state of random motion, colliding
elastically with one another and changing their direction as a
result.
(iii) There is always an attractive force between the molecules.

(iv) The volume of the gas molecule is negligible compared with the
volumes of the gas container.

3.3.1 Kinetic Theory Explanation of Temperature

We say that the molecules of a substance are in constant motion,

therefore, they possess kinetic energy.

The temperature of the body is a measure of the average kinetic energy

of its molecules.

When you add heat to a substance, the motion of the molecules

increases resulting in an increase in the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of the substance, thus, an increase in its temperature. On the
other hand, when you remove heat from a body, the motion of its
molecule decreases resulting in reduction in their average kinetic energy
and a decrease in temperature.

It follows therefore, that the temperature of a body is related to the

average kinetic energy of its molecules.

3.3.2 Kinetic Theory Explanation of Expansion

When we heat a substance, it increases in size, we say it expands. When

the substance cools, it contracts i.e reduces in size.

According to the kinetic molecular theory, when an object is heated the

molecules acquire more kinetic energy which enables them to overcome
their intermolecular forces resulting in increase in vibration of the
molecules and their displacement about their mean positions. The
average distance between the molecules of the substance becomes larger
leading to an increase in the size of the substance. The increase depends
on the strength of the intermolecular forces. If these forces are strong,
the expansion will be small and vice versa.

The intermolecular forces are stronger in solids than in liquids and

weakest in gases. Therefore, when heat is applied, gases expand more
than liquids and liquids expand more than solids.
3.3.3 Kinetic Molecular Theory Explanation of Change of
State

You are aware that substances exist in any of the three states of matter;
solid, liquid and gas. With the help of heat energy, it is possible to
transform a substance from one state to another. Change of state refers
to the process of transforming a substance from one state of matter to
another.

When a solid is heated its temperature increases until it reaches a certain

maximum temperature at which the molecules acquire maximum kinetic
energy. At this maximum temperature, further heating does not increase
the kinetic energy of the molecules but the heat energy (latent heat) is
used to break down the intermolecular forces binding the molecules of
the solids in a regular pattern. The molecules then melt and move about
freely as they are in the liquid state. The maximum temperature is the
melting point of the solid. Also, the change from liquid to gas takes
place in a similar fashion. The liquid temperature increases as it is
heated and reaches its maximum temperature at which the molecule
acquires maximum kinetic energy.

Further heating (latent heat) supplies the needed energy to overcome the
forces of attraction between the liquid molecules and changes the liquid
to vapour without temperature change. The molecules are then
practically independent of each other and exist as a gas.

The energy needed in this case is much greater than from solid to liquid
and the latent heat is much greater. Removal of heat energy from a
substance results in a reverse process.

The heat required to break down the intermolecular forces of attraction

in a solid is the latent heat of fusion.

The latent heat of vaporization is the heat needed to overcome the forces
of attraction between the molecules of the liquid.

3.4 Expansivity

Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled. You can observe
this in simple laboratory experiments such as:

• Ball and ring experiment:

• Bimetallic strip;

Different substances expand by different amounts for the same

temperature range. You can observe this in the heating of bimetallic
strip shown in Fig. 3.3.

Iron
Wooden handle

brass

(a) Before heating

Fig.3.3: Expansion of a
solid (bimetallic strip)

Before heating the bimetallic strip of brass and iron riveted together has
equal length. After heating, the strip bends as shown above because
brass expands more than iron for a given temperature rise.

3.4.1 Linear Expansivity

You can determine the extent which a unit metal substance changes in
length when it temperature changes by one degree. This quantity is
known as linear expansivity of the metal substance. It is represented by
the symbol α (pronounced alpha).

• The linear expansivity (α) of a substance is defined as the increase in

length per unit length per degree rise in temperature.

In symbols, this is equivalent to:

α = ℓ2 - ℓ 1 = e ……………..
(i) ℓ1 (θ2-θ1) ℓ1 θ

Where:

α = linear expansivity
ℓ1 = length of metal at temperature θ1
ℓ2 = length of metal at temperature θ2
 θ = temperature rise given by θ2 - θ1
e = expansion or increase in length ℓ2- ℓ1
α = Increase in length
original length x temperature rise

Unit per oC or per k (k-1)

• The statement that the linear expansivity of brass is 0.000018 k-1 or

0.000018/oC means that a unit length of brass expands by 0.00018
units when it is heated through 1k (or 1oC) rise in temperature.

3.4.2 Determination of Linear Expansivity

Fig. 3.4: Measurement of linear expansivity

The apparatus shown in Fig. 3.4 is used in the determination of linear

expansivity of a solid.

Carefully measure the original length ℓ1 of a metal rod (about 50 cm)

with a metre rule. Enclose the rod in a fixed jacket between a fixed stop
A and a micrometer guage B, so that no movement of the rod can take
place at A while the other end at B is free to move. Run cold water
through the jacket. Adjust the micrometer screw until it just touches the
B end of the rod. Record the guage’s first reading (e1) and the initial
temperature ( θ1) of he rod from the thermometer placed inside the
jacket.

Unscrew the micrometer screw guage from the end B of the rod to leave
enough space for the rod to expand. Pass hot steam through the jacket
for several minutes to allow the rod expand as a result of this heating.
Screw the guage to make contact with the rod again and take a new
reading of the guage (e2). Repeat the process until the reading of the
screw guage becomes constant. Take the final steady temperature (θ2) of
the rod from the thermometer inserted into the steam jacket.
Calculate the linear expansivity from the equation;

Linear expansivity (α) = expansion (or change in length)

Original length x temperature change

α = e2 – e = e
ℓ1(θ2 - θ1) ℓ1 θ

3.4.3 Area Expansivity (β)

When we heat a solid, it expands in all directions that is the length,

breath and height. This results in an increase in area as well as in
volume of the solid. This increase in area when the body is heated is
known as area or superficial expansion. It is represented by the symbol β
(pronounced beta).

Definition

The area or superficial expansivity, β, of a solid is the increase in area

per unit area per degree Kelvin increase in temperature or the fractional
increase in area per Kelvin rise in temperature.

Area expansivity β = change in area .

Original area x temperature rise

β = A2 –A1 = a
………………(2)
A1 x (θ2 -θ1) A1 θ

Where:
a =increase in area A2 –A1
A2 =area at temperature θ2
A1 =area at temperature θ1
θ =θ2 -θ1
3.4.4 Volume or Cubic Expansivity (૪)

An increase in volume when a body is heated is known as cubic or

volume expansion. We denote cubic expansivity with the symbol ૪
pronounced gamma.
Definition

The volume or cubic expansivity ૪, is the increase in volume of a

substance per unit volume per Kelvin rise in temperature or the
fractional increase in volume per Kelvin rise in temperature.

Cubic expansivity (૪) = change in volume

Original volume x temperature rise

૪ = V2 – V1 = v ………… (3)
V1 (θ2 - θ1) V1θ

Where

v = increase in volume V2 – V1
V2 = volume at temperature θ2
V1 = volume at temperature θ1
θ = θ2 - θ1

3.4.5 The Relationship between Linear Expansivity (α), Area

Expansivity (β) and Cubic Expansivity (૪)

If α is the coefficient of linear expansivity of a metal, its area

expansivity (β) and volume expansivity (૪) are related (α) by:

β = 2α
૪ = 3α ………………………………. (4)

We can also write the following:

ℓ2 = ℓ1 (1 + αθ)
A2 = A1 (1 + βθ) = (A1 + 2αθ)
V2 = V1 (1 + ૪) = (V1 + 3αθ)

where the symbols retain their previous meaning.

Worked Examples on Expansivity

1 In an experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a solid

rod, the following readings were obtained:

Initial temperature of rod (θ1) = 18oC

Original length of rod (ℓ1) = 50.0 cm
Final temperature of rod (θ2) = 98oC
Final length of rod (ℓ2) = 50.8 cm

Calculate the (a) linear, (b) area and (c) volume expansivity of the rod.

Rise in temperature = 98oC – 18oC = 80oC

Expansion of rod = Increase in length = 50.8 cm – 50.0 cm = 0.8cm

Solution

(a) linear expansivity = expansion

original length x temperature change

= 0.8 = 0.0002 per oC

50 x 80

(b) area expansivity (β) = 2α = 0.0002 x 2

= 0.0004 per oC

(c) cubic expansivity (૪) = 3α = 3 x 0.0002

= 0.0006 per oC

2 The coefficient of linear expansivity of a metal is 1.8 x 10-5 cm

per degree Celsius. A cube of the metal has each length as 2.5 m.
Find the area of each surface and the volume of the cube if it is
heated through a temperature of 60oC

Solution

Coefficient of linear expansivity α = 1.8 x 10-5

Coefficient of area expansivity β = 2α = 2 x 1.8 x 10-5 = 3.6 x 10-5
Coefficient of volume expansivity ૪ = 3α = 3 x 1.8 x 10-5 = 5.4 x 10-5

Area of each surface A2

= A1 (1 + 2 αθ)
= 6.25 (1 + 3.6 x 10-5 x 60)m
 = 6.26m2

The volume of the cube V2

= V1 (1 + ૪)
= 15.63 (1 + 5.4 x 10-5 x 60)m
= 15.69 m3
3.5 Some Applications of Expansion

Here are some of the applications:

• Gaps are left between rails in railway lines to allow for free
expansion and contraction of the rails. Without the gaps, the rail
joints will swell up on hot days, the railway line will buckle and
trains would be derailed.

• The end of the steel structure of long bridges rests on rollers which
allow for the expansion and contraction of the bridge without
weakening the structure.

• Telegraph wires are allowed to sag when fixed in the warm, raining
season, so that they do not snap when they contract in the cold
harmattan.

• A bimetallic strip is used in the thermostat, a device for maintaining

steady temperature. Thermostats are used in electric laundry irons,
immersion heaters for hot water tanks, refrigerators and
airconditioners.

• Balance wheel of watches are also made of bimetallic strips without

which increase of temperature will increase the diameter of the
balance wheel thereby weaking the elasticity of the hair spring and
causing the watch to lose time.

• A thick glass tumbler cracks when hot water is poured into it because
the inside of the tumbler expands more rapidly than the outside and
causes a strain in the glass. A type of glass known as pyrex is used
for making laboratory beakers and flasks to avoid the above effects.
Pyrex has low thermal expansivity.

• Other applications of expansion of solids is in:

expands by different amounts when heated through the same
temperature ranges.

Fig. 3.6 : Different liquids expand differently

You will observe that in the three flasks, the level of liquids in the tube
first falls and then rises steadily. The level of alcohol is the highest
followed by benzene and least is water.

3.6.1 Real and Apparent Expansivity

In the last activity, we observe that when a liquid in a container is

heated, both the liquid and the container expand. The expansion of the
liquid as observed is the apparent expansion. This is always less than the
true or real expansion of the liquid. It is therefore necessarily to
distinguish between the real and the apparent cubic expansion of the
liquid.

Real expansion = Apparent expansion + expansion of the container

૪ real = ૪ apparent +
૪ container ......................... (5)
• The real (or absolute) cubic expansivity (૪ r) of a liquid is the
increase in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature.

• The apparent cubic expansivity (૪ a) of a liquid is the increase in

volume per degree rise in temperature when the liquid is heated in an
expansible vessel.

The apparent expansivity of a liquid is obtained by weighing a density

bottle empty and then fills with the liquid. The bottle with the contents is
then heated in a warm water bath. As the temperature increases, the
glass and the liquid expand and the liquid overflows. The bottle is then
taken out of the water bath, cleaned and reweighed to determine the
mass of liquid expelled. The apparent expansivity is calculated from:

૪ apparent = mass of liquid expelled ……….(6)

mass of liquid remaining x rise in temperature

3.6.2 The Anomalous Expansion of Water

We know from the foregoing that most liquids expand when heated and
contract when cooled. Water is an exception to this rule as it behaves in
an anomalous way when cooled. It contracts on cooling from a higher
temperature until the temperature falls to 4oC. At 4oC, it starts to expand
if cooled further below this temperature to 0oC. That is water expands
when cooled from 4oC to 0oC. As a result of this, a given mass of water
has its least volume and its highest density at 4 oC. This anomalous
behaviour of water is illustrated in an experiment known as Hope’s
experiment.

3.6.3 The Importance of Anomalous Expansion of Water in

Nature

The anomalous expansion of water is important to us because it makes

ponds, lakes and rivers to freeze from the top surface rather than from
the bottom. As a result, Marine lives can survive during winter since ice
forms at the surface of the water while the bottom of the lake remains at
4oC a temperature warm enough for aquatic animals such as fishes.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1 Which gives you greater burn, water at 100oC or steam at 100oC?

Why?

2 Two identical cans are placed in contact, one containing hot

water and the other cold water. Why is it that the temperature of
the cold water rises and that of the hot water falls and not the
other way round?

3 (a) What is meant by the statement, the linear expansivity of a

solid is 1.0 x 10-5 K-1.

3 (b) i Describe an experiment to determine the linear

expansivity of a steel rod.
ii Steel bars each of length 3 cm at 29oC are to be
used for constructing the rail line. If the linear
expansivity of the steel is 1.0 x 10-5K-1, Calculate
 the safety gap that must be left between successive
bars if the highest temperature expected is 41oC.

(c) State three advantages and two disadvantages of thermal

expansion of solids.

4 Distinguish between real and apparent cubic expansivity of a

liquid.

5 A glass bottle full of mercury has mass 500 g. On being heated

through 35oC, 2.43 g of mercury are expelled. Calculate the mass
of mercury remaining in the bottle. Cubic expansivity of mercury
is 1.8 x 10 -4 K-1, linear expansivity of glass is 8.0 x 10-6 K-1.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learned a number of important concepts which

relate to the effects of heat and their explanation using kinetic molecular
theory. You also learned linear, area and volume expansivity of a
substance and the applications of expansion. In addition, you learned
about liquid expansion and the importance of anomalous expansion of
water.

5.0 SUMMARY

• All substances are made of molecules. When a substance is heated, it

molecules begin to move faster.

• Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy. It is the energy

communicated from one body at higher temperature to another at
lower temperature.

• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

• According to kinetic molecular theory, the temperature of a body

depends on the average kinetic energy of its molecules

• The linear expansivity α of a substance is the fractional increase in

its length per degree change in temperature.

• Area or superficial expansivity, β is the fractional increase in area

per unit change in temperature.

• The volume or cubic expansivity ૪ is the fractional increase in

volume per degree change in temperature.
• β = 2α; = 3α

• Real volume expansivity = apparent volume expansivity +

volume expansivity of container; ૪ r =૪a + ૪

• Water unlike other liquids, contract when it is heated from 0oC to

4oC. Water has a maximum density at 4oC.

• Advantages and disadvantages of expansion.

• The advantages of expansion are utilized in fitting of wheels on

metal rims, fire alarm, thermostat, bimetallic thermometer,
compensated pendulum.

• The disadvantages of expansion are the sagging of over head cable,

the buckling of railway lines, in the gaining or losing of time as a
result of expansion of balance wheels of watches and clocks.

6.0 TUTOR -MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State three advantages and two disadvantages of thermal

expansion of solids.

2. Which gives you a greater burn, water at 100oC or steam at

100oC? Why?

3. The linear expansivity of iron is 0.000012 K-1. What does this

statement mean?

4. The linear expansivity of a cube is 0.000018 K-1. If the length of

each side of the cube is 10 cm, find the area of one face of the
cube and the volume of the cube when its temperature is raised
by 30 k.

5. A container is completely filled with 95.1 kg of a liquid at 36 oC.

When the temperature of the liquid was raised to 78oC, it is found
that 1.2 g of the liquid overflows. Determine the apparent cubic
(volume) expansivity of the liquid.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anyakoha, M.W. (2000). New School Physics for Senior Secondary

Schools Onisha: Africana FEP Publishers Limited.

Ndupu, B. L. N. and Okeke, P. N. (2000). Round-up Physics. Ikeja

Lagos: Longman Nigeria Plc.

Okpala, P. N. (1990) .Physics. Certificate Year Series for Senior

Secondary Schools Ibadan. NPS Educational.
UNIT 4 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Heat and Temperature
3.2 Principle Used in Temperature Measurement
3.3 Temperature Scales
3.3.1 Fixed Temperature Points of a Thermometer
3.3.2 Types of Temperature Scales
3.4 Types of Thermometers
3.4.1 Liquid – in – Glass Thermometer
3.4.2 Table Comparison of Mercury and Alcohol as
Thermometric Liquids
3.4.3 Gas Thermometers
3.4.4 Platinum Resistance Thermometer
3.4.5 Thermoelectric Thermometer
3.4.6 Optical Pyrometers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit (Module 3, unit 3) we discussed the concepts of heat

and temperature and stated the difference between them. We noted that
heat is a form of energy (thermal energy) while temperature is a measure
of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. In this unit we shall
restate the difference between heat and temperature and discuss the
various methods of measuring temperature. The relationship between
pressure and temperature of a gas, the different types of scales used in
temperature measurement and types of thermometers will be treated.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Construct a device for measuring the temperature of the body

• Use the variation of

o Pressure of a gas with temperature

o Expansion of solid, liquid or gas with temperature
 o Electrical resistance of a material, to measure the temperature
of the body.

• distinguish between heat and temperature and between

temperature points and temperature intervals
• select those liquids which are suitable for use in liquid –in-glass
thermometers from a given list of liquids and their properties.
• describe the absolute scale of temperature and explain the
meaning of the absolute zero of temperature
• convert a given temperature in the Celsius scale to a temperature
in the Kelvin scale and vice versa
• describe the kinetic molecular model of temperature.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Heat and Temperature

Heat is a form of energy which can be transformed into other forms of

energy. It is also called “thermal energy” and always flows from a body
at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature, if the two
bodies are in contact. It is a measure of the internal energy of a body.
The quantity of heat contained in a body depends on the mass of the
body and its temperature. The unit of heat is the joule (J).

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is related

to the energy of movement (kinetic energy). It is also a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the molecules of a body. The unit of
temperature is degree Celsuis (0C) or Kelvin (K).

3.2 Principle Used in Temperature Measurement

In measuring the temperature of a body we use the principle that certain

physical properties of some substances vary with temperature. Any
physical property of a substance which varies in a known way and can
easily be measured is employed in an instrument called “thermometer”
to measure temperature. The substance whose physical property that is
used is called a “thermometric substance”. Table 4.1 below presents a
summary of the types of thermometers and their thermometric
substances.
Table 4.1: Thermometers and Thermometric Substances

Types of Thermometric Physical Property

Thermometers substance
1. Liquid-in-glass Mercury or Change in volume of
thermometer Alcohol liquid with temperature

2. Gas thermometer Gas Change of gas pressure

at constant volume with
temperature

3. Resistance thermometer Resistance wire Change in the electrical

resistance of wire with
temperature

4. Thermocouple Two dissimilar Change in electric

metals (e.g. potential difference (or
copper and current) between two
constantan) metal junctions at
different temperature.

5. Bimetallic thermometer Two dissimilar The differential

metals (e.g. iron expansion of the two
and copper) metals of the bimetallic
strip.

3.3 Temperature Scales

3.3.1 Fixed Temperature Points of a Thermometer

A thermometer has two reference temperatures or “fixed points”,

namely:

(a) The upper fixed temperature point

(b) The lower fixed temperature point.

Definitions

(a) The upper fixed point of a thermometer is the temperature of

steam from pure water boiling at standard atmospheric pressure
of 760 mm of mercury.
(b) The lower fixed point of a thermometer is the temperature of pure
melting ice at the standard atmospheric pressure of 760mm of
mercury.
(c) The fundamental interval (or temperature interval) is the
difference in temperature between the upper and lower fixed
points of a thermometer.

The fundamental interval of a thermometer is usually calibrated to give

readings of temperature values between the upper and lower fixed
points. The calibration of this interval depends on the scale of
temperature chosen for the thermometer.

3.3.2 Types of Temperature Scales

Three types of scales that are in common use are as follows

(i) Fahrenheit scale

(ii) Celsius scale
(iii) Kelvin (absolute or thermodynamic) scale.

Fig. 4.1 shows the three scales with their upper and lower fixed points
and their fundamental intervals.

Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.1: Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin scales of temperature

(a) Fahrenheit Scale (oF)

(i) Lower and upper fixed points are 32oF and 212oF
respectively.
(ii) Fundamental interval is divided into 180 equal parts
(i.e. 212 – 32 = 180) each of which defines one degree
Fahrenheit (1oF) in this scale.
(b) Celsius Scale (oC)

(i) Lower and upper fixed points are 00C and 1000C
respectively.
(ii) Fundamental interval is divided into 100 equal parts or
degree, each equal to 10C.

(c) Kelvin or Absolute Scale (K)

(i) Lower and Upper fixed points are 273K and 373K
respectively.
(ii) Fundamental interval is divided into 100 equal parts or
units each of which is called one Kelvin (K).

You should note well that in this scale temperatures are not measured in
degrees but in units called Kelvin (K). Hence the unit symbol K is
written without the degree sign. The zero on the Kelvin scale is equal to
-273oC (i.e. OK = -273oC). It is called the “absolute zero”

Definition

The absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which the volume of

a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, which is steadily cooled below
0oC, would theoretically become zero.

Conversion Formulas

(i) Conversion from Fahrenheit to Celsius:

Scale suppose X of corresponds to a temperature of yoC.

212oF 100oC

x y

320F 00C

Fig. 4.2

Fahrenheit Celsius
Scale Scale
By proportions:

X – 32 = Y–0
212 – 32 100 – 0
x – 32 = y
180 100
Y = 100 ( x -32)
180
Y = 5 (X – 32)
9
where X is in F and Y is in 0C.
o

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

(i) Give two examples of conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit and

Fahrenheit to Celsius.

Conversion from Celsius to Kelvin Absolute Scale

We have seen that

OK = -273oC or 00C = 273 K

Hence, if t oC corresponds to T on the absolute scale, then

T = t + 273

You should note that although the fixed points on the Celsius and Kelvin
scales are different, a temperature change of 1oC (on the Celsius scale) is
equivalent to a temperature change of IK (on the Kelvin scale).

Determination of Temperate on a Celsius Scale

You can determine an unknown temperature 0 in the Celsuis scale as

follows:

1. Identify a physical property of a substance which varies in a

known way with temperature and which can easily be measured.
2. Measure the value of the physical property at the lower fixed
point, 00C.
3. Measure the value of the physical property at the upper fixed
point, 1000C
4. Finally measure the value of the physical property at the
unknown temperature 00C
 X100 1000C

X0 θ0C

X0 00C

Fig. 4.3

Let value of physical property at 00C = X0

Let value of physical property at 1000C = X100

Let value of physical property at θ0C = X0

If change in physical property is directly proportional to change in

temperature, then using proportions, we have

X θ - xo = θ – 00C
x100 – xo 100 - 0oC

0 = xo - xo
100 x100 - xo
0 = xo - x o x 100
x100 - xo

This method can be used to measure an unknown temperature where a

calibrated thermometer is not available.

Worked example

The upper and lower fixed points of a certain thermometer are 30cm
apart. On a certain day, the length of mercury thread in the thermometer
is 9 cm above the ice point. What is the temperature recorded by the
thermometer on (a) Celsuis scale (b) Kelvin scale?
Solution

1000C X100 373K

30cm
0
0C Xt T

00C X0 273K

Fig. 4.4

(a) Using proportions, we have

θ–0 9
100 - 0 = 30

0 = 9
100 30

0 = 9 x 100 = 300C
30

(b) Again using proportions, we have

T - 273 = 9
373 - 273 30

T - 273 = 9
100 30

T - 273 = 9 x 100 = 30
30

T = 30 + 273 = 303K

Alternatively for (b), once 0 has been obtained in (a), we can

apply the conversion formula as follows:

T = t + 273
T = θ + 273
T = 30 + 273 = 303K
(c) Constant Volume Gas Thermometer Scale

(i) Upper fixed point is the triple point of water.

Definition

The triple point of water is the temperature at which ice liquid water and
water vapour coexist in equilibrium.

(ii) Lower fixed point is the absolute zero or Ok (-273oC).

The scale is usually calibrated at these two fixed points and other
temperatures are obtained by measuring the pressure of the gas at the
unknown temperature and making use of the definition of temperature in
the scale given below.

Determination of Temperature on the Constant volume Gas

Thermometer Scale.

Suppose the unknown temperature = T

Let temperature of the triple point of water = Ttr = 273.16K
Let pressure of gas at the unknown temperature = PT
Let pressure of gas at triple point of water = Ptr
Using T1 = P1 , we have
T2 P2

T = Pr
Ttr Ptr

T = PT
273.16 Ptr

T = PT x 273.16
Ptr
For elementary work, where ice point is used instead of the triple point,
we have
T = PT x 273.16
Pice

(d) Standard Thermometer Scale

Early experiments measured temperature with mercury thermometers

and often found that different instruments gave different readings for the
same temperature. Other types of thermometers such as the platinum
resistance or the gas thermometers which were used later had the same
problem. It became clear that one type of thermometer based on one
scale of temperature would have to be taken as standard. Gas
thermometers, either the constant volume or constant pressure types,
showed the closest agreement over a wide range of temperatures. They
were also very sensitive, accurate and highly reproduceable. It was
observed that as the pressure was lowered (approaching zero), all gas
thermometers indicate the same reading.

Lord kelvin suggested that the standard scale of temperature should be

based on an imaginary ideal gas with properties that were those of real
gases at very low i.e it obeyed Boyle’s law. He proposed that the
product of the pressure and volume of this ideal gas should be used as
the thermometric property of the gas. Thus if P1, P2 are the pressures and
V1, V2 the volumes of the gas at temperatures T1 T2, then

T1 = P1V1 ……………….(1)
T2 P2V2

If the volume is kept constant, then we have

T1 = P1 ……………..(2)
T2 P2

Which gives a definition of temperature on the constant – volume gas

thermometer scale. If however, pressure is kept constant, we have

T1 = V1 …………………..(3)
T2 V2
which gives a definition of the temperature on the constant-pressure gas
thermometer scale.

For practical reasons (among which were the extreme sensitivity of the
steam point to pressure changes) another upper fixed point, the triple
point of water, was chosen to replace the steam point as the upper fixed
point on the proposed standard temperature scale. The absolute zero
(OK) was chosen as the lower fixed point.

As it has already been pointed out either the constant-volume or

constant-pressure gas thermometer could be reliably used for measuring
temperatures in this scale since at low pressures all gases (including the
imaginary ideal gas) give the same reading. However, the constant –
volume gas thermometer has been chosen and hence the standard
thermometer scale “is the same as the constant-volume gas thermometer
scale” It is also called “ideal gas scale “or thermodynamic temperature
scale.

We have already defined unknown temperature on this scale as follows:

 T = PT x 273.16
Ptr

where T is the unknown temperature, PT is the pressure of the gas at the

unknown temperature, T, Ptr is the pressure of the gas at the triple point
of water and 273.16 is the triple point of water.

(d) International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS)

Measuring temperatures on the standard thermometer scale (or ideal gas

scale) using the constant –volume gas thermometer is a tedious exercise.
The international temperature scale (ITS) was therefore proposed and
adopted as a more practical scale for general use. The scale consists of
eleven primary fixed points ranging from the triple point of hydrogen
(13.81K) to the freezing point of gold (1337.58K), which have been
accurately determined on the ideal gas scale by a constant volume gas
thermometer and also some other secondary fixed points. Particular
types of thermometer are specified for measuring temperatures over a
certain range using agreed formulas. At the fixed points, there is
agreement between the IPTS and the Kelvin scale, the differences at the
intervening temperatures being usually negligible.

3.4 Types of Thermometer

3.4.1 Liquid – in – Glass Thermometer

This is the most common type of thermometer. Temperature is measured

by measuring the volume of a fixed mass of liquid inside the
thermometer owing to change in temperature. Mercury and alcohol are
the common liquids used in this type of thermometer but mercury
thermometers are more commonly in use. Mercury is preferred because.

(i) It is easily seen

(ii) It expands almost uniformly with increase in temperature,
(iii) It does not stick to or wet glass
(iv) Its temperature range, -39oC to 357oC, is convenient for normal
use.

Figure .4.5 shows a mercury-in-glass thermometer with fixed points

indicate in the Celsius and Kelvin scale of temperature.

The thermometer is made sensitive by:

(a) using thin glass for the bulb to enable the liquid in the bulb to
assume the temperature of its surrounding very quickly,
(b) using a narrow capillary tube of uniform bore to make it possible
for small temperature changes to cause large changes in volume
of mercury (or length of mercury thread).
(c) using a liquid of high expansivity such as mercury (note the
properties of mercury listed above earlier).

Fig. 4.5: Mercury –in – glass thermometer

Water as a thermometric liquid

Water is unsuitable as a thermometric liquid for the following reasons:

(i) It has a small range of expansion – it freezes at 0oC and boils at

1000C
(ii) It does not expand uniformly and between 00C and 40C it
contracts when heated and expands when cooled (anomalous
expansion).
(iii) It wets glass (unlike mercury it leaves traces of water as it moves
on the glass.
(iv) It is colourless, making the mercury in glass difficult to read.
3.4.2 Comparison of Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric
Liquids

The following (Table 4.2) shows the comparison of mercury and alcohol
as thermometric liquids.

Table 4.2: Comparison of Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric

Liquids

Mercury Alcohol
1. Has greater conductivity Has much less conductivity and
and expands rapidly and so expands slowly and so does not
indicates a temperature respond quickly to temperature
change quickly change

2. Has silvery surface which Needs to be coloured since it is

makes it opaque and hence courless
can be seen easily.

3. Does not wet glass because Wets glass because of its concave
of its convex meniscus and meniscus and so tends to cling to
thus enables the meniscus the walls of stem of thermometer
to give accurate readings of resulting to inaccurate readings
temperature especially when the temperature is
falling

4. Does not vaporize easily Vaporises easily even at low

temperatures

5. Can be used to measure Boils at 78oC and so cannot be used

higher temperatures since it to measured temperatures above
boils at 357oC 78oC

6. Freezes at -39oC and so not Freezes at -115oC and so is suitable

suitable for measuring for measuring much lower
temperature lower than this temperatures than mercury
value thermometers.

7. Has much lower Has a much higher expansivity.

expansivity for the same Expands, six times, as much as
 rise in temperature. mercury for some rise in
temperature.

Points 1-5 above represent the advantages of mercury over alcohol as a

thermometric liquid while points 6 and 7 represent the advantages of
alcohol over mercury (or the disadvantage of mercury over alcohol).

Other types of liquid – in – glass thermometer. Apart from the type of

mercury –in-glass thermometer commonly used in schools and
hospitals, we also have

(a) Clinical Thermometer

This type of thermometer is used in hospital for measuring the

temperature of the human body. It has range of 35oC to 43oC because the
normal temperature of a healthy person is about 37oC but may rise to
about 41oC during high fever. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.6 below:

Fig. 4.6: Clinical thermometer

(b) Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

This type of thermometer is used by weathermen in the meteorological

department to record maximum and minimum temperature for a day in
meteorological stations. . The information is used to predict weather.
Six’s combined maximum and minimum thermometer named after the
inventor, James Six, is most commonly used. Fig. 4.7 illustrates the
major features of the thermometer. Two steel indices A1 and A2,
floating in the alcohol in both aims of the tube, are used to read the
minimum and maximum temperatures respectively.

When temperature rises, the alcohol expands pushing the mercury round
the thermometer. As a result the steel index A2 is pushed upwards. Its
lower end indicates the maximum temperature, which is read from the
attached scale. Decrease in temperature cause the alcohol to contract so
that mercury moves up the minimum arm, pushing the steel index A1
upwards.

Alcohol vapour

Alcohol

Steel inde Mercury

Fig. 4.7: Six’s maximum and minimum thermometer

The lower end of this index (A1) indicates the minimum temperature
reached. Tiny springs attached to A1 and A2 enable them to remain in
positions to which they have been pushed. A magnet is used to reset the
indices by bringing them in touch with the mercury column more.

3.4.3 Gas Thermometers

Liquid-in-glass thermometers are not very suitable for very accurate

measurements of temperature. This is mainly because the glass
containing the mercury or alcohol also expands with the liquid in an
irregular manner. Again such thermometers have relatively small
temperature range determined by the boiling and freezing points of the
liquids used.

For accurate temperature measurements, gas thermometers are used.

They are usually of two main types: constant-pressure gas thermometers
in which the pressure or volume respectively of a fixed mass of gas
increases linearly as temperature increases. Constant volume gas
thermometers are more commonly used than their constant – pressure
counter – parts.

Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

Fig. 4.8 shows the main features of a constant volume gas thermometer.
It consists of a flask containing dry air or nitrogen connected to a
manometer tube by means of a capillary tube. The mark A is the
constant volume mark. In order to measure the pressure of the gas in the
flask , the height of the mercury reservoir B is adjusted until the mercury
level in the capillary tube reaches the level A, the

Fig. 4.8: Constant volume gas thermometer

h = difference in mercury levels in the manometer at A and B

(measurement in cm),

H = height of mercury barometer

(atmospheric pressure) then the
pressure (p) of the gas in the flask is
given by the total pressure on the gas

P = the total pressure on the gas (H + h)

cm mercury where H = atmospheric
height.
 ho = height of mercury at ice point

h100 = height of mercury at the steam point,

hθ = height of mercury at the temperature

θ to be measured,

then θo C = Pθ - Po x 100 0C
P100 - Po
(H + ho ) - ( H - ho)
(H + h100) - (H - ho)

θ = hθ - h o
h100 - ho
3.4.4 Platinum Resistance Thermometer

Fig. 4.9 shows the main features of a platinum resistance thermometer

which makes use of the fact that the electrical resistance of a metallic
conductor changes proportionally with its temperature. If the
temperature increases, the resistance also increases.

Fig. 4.9: Platinum resistance thermometer

The thermometer consists of a long thin platinum wire wound (non-

conductively) round a small spool made of mica or silica. The ends of
the wire are connected to a resistance measuring device such as the
metre bridge. If a given platinum wire has a resistance R o at 0oC, R100 at
1000C and Rθ at an unknown temperatureθ, then the unknown
temperature is given by

θ = Rθ - Ro x 100oC
R100 - Ro
In most cases, the temperature scale may be calibrated to read the
temperature directly.

Platinum resistance thermometers are useful for measuring very low and
very high temperatures, usually of range – 1800 to 1,1500C.

3.4.5 Thermoelectric Thermometer

Fig 4.10: Thermoelectric thermometers

A thermoelectric thermometer is essentially a thermocouple and works

on the principle of the thermometer. It consists of two different metals,
e.g. copper and constantan joined at the ends. One end, the hot junction,
is heated (or cooled) while the other end, the cold junction, is kept
constant at the temperature of melting i.e. so that a current (usually in
milliamperes) flows along the metals. The thermometer is connected in
series to a potentiometer which measures the e.m.f across the ends of the
metals in millivolts. The value of the e.m.f depends on the difference
between the temperature of the hot and cold junction.

Suppose Eo = emf at 00C (ice point)

E100 = emf at 1000C (steam point)
Eo = emf at the unknown temperatureθ,

Then θ = Eθ - Eo x 1000C
E100 - Eo
Thermoelectric thermometers are particularly useful for measuring very
high temperatures in industry.

Advantages of the thermometer are as follows:

(i) It is very sensitive and can measure rapidly changing or

momentary temperatures
(ii) It can measure high temperature up to 5000C.
(iii) It is very small in size and so can measure the temperature at a
point.
3.4.6 Optical Pyrometers

When it is required to make accurate measurements of very high

temperature, optical pyrometers are used. This is done by observing the
radiation from the hot body and the process is called pyrometer and the
instrument used a radiation pyrometer or optical pyrometer.

Optical pyrometers make use of the principle that very hot substances
change colour at certain known temperatures. For example the
temperature of steel, when it is below red heat, can be judged by its
colour. Temperatures below red heat can also be estimated by the use of
paints which change colours at known temperatures.

Radiation pyrometers can be used to measure temperatures (e.g. of

furnaces) only above red-heat which is about 600oC. They fall into two
major classes:

(i) Optical radiation pyrometers, which respond only to visible light

and

(ii) Total radiation pyrometers , which respond to the total radiation

from the hot body, heat and light

Fig. 4.11: Optical radiation pyrometer

The principle of the commonest type of optical radiation pyrometer also

known as the “disappearing filament” optical pyrometer is illustrated in
Fig. 4.11. Light from the hot source and the tungsten filament lamp is
made to pass through a red filter of a known wavelength range before it
reaches the eye. The eyepiece of the instrument (not shown in the figure
but between the eye and the filter) is focused upon the filament of the
tungsten light .The hot source, S whose temperature is required is then
focused by the objective lens, L so that its images also lies in the plane
of F. The light from both the hot source and the filament passes through
the red filter (of red glass) before reaching the eye. Both of them (source
and filament) therefore appear red.
If the body is brighter than the filament, the filament appears dark on a
bright background. If the filament is brighter than the source, it appears
bright on a dark background. By adjusting the current through it, the
temperature of the filament is adjusted until it merges as nearly as
possible into its background. It is then as bright as the body or source
and is said to have “disappeared’. The rheostat R which adjusts the
current as well as the ammeter A which measures the current are both
mounted on the body of the pyrometer.

The ammeter is usually calibrated to read the temperature directly in

degrees Celsius. Radiation pyrometers of this type can measure
temperatures up to 10000C (i.e range between 6000C and 10000C but
more elaborated pyrometers can be adjusted to measure much higher
temperatures. Generally the range of a radiation pyrometer can be
extended by introducing a green filter between objective lense L1 and
the filament lamp. This reduces the brightness of the red filter. When
this is done, a second scale on the ammeter is provided for reading the
temperature accurately when such a green filter is inserted

Summary of Ranges, Advantages and Disadvantage of

Thermometers

Table 4.3 presents a summary the ranges, advantages and disadvantages

of the common types of thermometers discussed.

Table 4.3: A summary of types of thermometers

Types of thermometers Advantages Disadvantages

and temperature range
Mercury-in-glass (i) Easily and quickly (i) Limited range.
thermometer -390C to read – temperature (ii) Less accurate
0
357 C read directly. (iii) Easily broken.
(ii) Very portable.
(iii) suitable for normal
use.
Constant volume gas (i) Sensitive. (i) Difficult to use and
thermometer (ii) Accurate time consuming.
-2700C to 1 5000C (iii) Large range (ii) Volume of flask is
(iv) Easily large, therefore
constructed. unable to measure
(v) Used for temperature at
calibrating other isolated confined
types of space.
thermometers.
 (vi) Used as standard
thermometer for
temperatures
below -1830C.
Platinum resistance (i) Accurate. (i) Not suitable for
thermometer (ii) Wide range. measuring rapid
-1800C to 1 1500C (iii) Most suitable for changes in temperature
measuring because it takes time to
constant attain thermal
temperatures equilibrium with the
accurately. surroundings.
(iv)Used as standard
thermometer for
temperature
between -1850C
and 6300C.
Thermoelectric (i) Sensitive. (i)Less accurate if
0
thermometer ----250 C (ii) Wide range millivoltmeter is used
0
to 1 150 C (iii) Most suitable for to measure emf. A
rapid changes of potentiometer used for
temperature. measuring emf would
(iv) Able to measure be more accurate.
temperature of
small and
isolated places.
(v)Used as standard
thermometer for
temperatures
between 6300C
and 0630C.
Radiation pyrometer (i) Accurate (i) Not suitable for
0
above 600 C (ii) Sensitive temperatures below
(iii) Wide range 6000C
(iv) Suitable for very
high
temperatures
(e.g furnaces)
without risk or
danger to
persons
involved.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you learned about heat and temperature. You also learned
about the principle used in temperature measurement, temperature scales
and types of thermometers.

5.0 SUMMARY

1. Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is

measured by an instrument called thermometer and it is a scalar
quantity.

2. Heat is a form of energy (thermal energy) which flows from one

point to another as a result of temperature difference between the
points.

3. Thermometers employ any physical property of a substance

which varies in a known way with temperature and is easily
measurable.

4. Five major types of thermometers are in use, namely: liquid-in-

glass thermometers, gas thermometer, resistance thermometers,
thermoelectric thermometers and radiation pyrometers. Each type
of thermometer has associated with it, a particular level of
accuracy sensitivity, range, advantages and disadvantages.

5. The following temperature scale exists:

(i) Fahrenheit scale (no longer in common practical use)

(ii) Celsuis Scale (also called Centigrade scale) on this scale,

absolute zero is -2730C or more accurately -273.15; ice
point is 0.000C; steam point is 100.000C and triple point of
water is 0.010C.

(iii) Kelvin scale (also called “absolute scale”, “standard scale

“ or thermodynamic scale”). The so called “ ideal gas
scale” or the “Constant volume gas thermometer scale”
also belong to this class; On this scale absolute zero is
0.00K, ice point is 273.15K, steam point is 373.15K and
triple point of water is 273.16K.

(iv) International practical temperature scale (IPTS) made up

of eleven primary fixed points ranging from the triple
point of hydrogen (13.81K) to the freezing point of gold
(1337.58K) which have been accurately determined on the
ideal gas temperature scale.
6. Kelvin scale of temperature is related to the Celsius scale by
T (K) = 273 + θ 0C
A more accurate relationship is
T (K) = 273.15 + θ 0C
Change of I K = change of 10C.
The absolute zero of temperature = 0 (K) or -2730C (or
more accurately -273.150C)

7. Temperature θ on the Celsius scale is defined by

θ = Xθ - X0 x 100 0C
X100 - X0
where X is the physical property varying with temperature,
Xθ = value of X at θ 0C
X0 = value of X at 00C, and
X100 = value of X at 1000C.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1 (a) Distinguish between heat and temperature

(b) Name three physical properties used in the construction of

thermometers and state how each property varies with
temperature.

2 (a) Give reasons why water is not suitable as a thermometric

liquid.

(b) State four advantages and two disadvantages of mercury

as a thermometric liquid.

(3) Explain each of the following with respect to a thermometer:

(i) fixed point

(ii) Fundamental interval.

A faulty thermometer reads 0.50C at the ice point and 99.20C at

the steam point. What is the correct temperature when the
thermometer reads 200C and at what temperature will its reading
be exactly correct?
(4) (a) Name five different types of thermometer and describe the
working of any two of them.

(b) List five different scales of temperature and briefly

describe each one of them.

(5) A fixed mass of gas at constant pressure has a volume of 200.0

cm3 at the ice point, 273.2 cm3 at the steam point and 525.1 cm3 at
the melting point of a solid .What is the melting point of the solid
on the constant pressure gas scale of temperature?

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define an unknown temperature θ on the Celsius temperature

scale using a platinum resistance thermometer. State the principle
on which such a thermometer functions. The resistance of a
platinum resistance thermometer wire 10.40 ohms at 00C and
10.71 ohms at 1000C. Calculate the temperature when the
resistance is 9.61 ohms.

2. Explain the meaning of “fixed points” and “fundamental internal”

of a thermometer. The ice and steam points of a thermometer is a
marked 40 and 120 respectively. What is

(i) The temperature in oC when the reading on this is 60,

(ii) The thermometer reading when the temperature is 600C?

3. The fixed point of a standard thermometer is the triple point of

water which is given the value 273.16K

(i) What is meant by the fixed point of a thermometer?

(ii) Why is the triple point temperature given the value

273.16K

4. Suggest a suitable thermometer to measure the following

temperatures:

(a) A pool of molten lead (melting point of lead is about

600K)
 (b) A liquid nitrogen bath at its normal boiling point (about
80K). For each case, outline the working principle of the
thermometer.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anyakoha, M. W. (2000). Physics for Senior Sec. School. Onitsha:

Africana – FEP Publishers Ltd.

Awe, O and Okunola O.O (1992). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

SSCE Edition. Ibadan: University Press Plc.

Duncan, T. (1977). Advanced Physics: Fields, Waves and Atoms.

London: John Murray.

Nelkon, M. (1986). Principles of Physics for Senior Secondary Schools

(9th Edition). England. Longman Group Ltd.

Nelkon, M and Parker (1982). Advanced Level Physics (5th Edition).

London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.

Ndupu, B. L. N. Okeke, P.N. and Ladipo, O.A. (2000). Senior

Secondary Physics Book 2 Lagos: Longman Nigeria Plc.

Yong, P.L; Anyakoha M.W. and Okeke, P.N. (2002). University

Physics. Also for Polytechnics and Colleges, Volume 1. Onitsha:
Africana – FEP Publishers Ltd.
UNIT 5 TRANSFER OF HEAT AND HEAT
CAPACITIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Conduction of Heat
3.1.1 Good and Bad Conductors of Heat
3.1.2 Experiment to Compare the Thermal Conductivities
of Materials
3.1.3 Explanation of Conduction in Terms of Kinetic
Molecular Theory
3.1.4 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Air
3.1.5 Practical Applications of Good and Bad Conductors
3.2 Convection of Heat through Liquids and Gases
3.2.1 Convection Currents in Liquids
3.2.2 Explanation of Convection in Terms of Kinetic
Molecular Theory (KMT)
3.2.3 Convection Current Artificial/Natural Current
3.2.4 Practical Applications of Convection Current
3.3 Radiation of Heat
3.3.1 Emission and Absorption of Radiation by Different
Surfaces
3.3.2 Applications of Radiation
3.4 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
3.4.1 Heat Capacity – Definition, Symbol and Unit
3.4.2 Specific Heat Capacity –Definition, Symbol and
Unit
3.4.3 Quantity of Heat
3.5 Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity of a Substance
3.5.1 Method of Mixtures
3.5.2 Electrical Method
3.6 Newton’s Law of Cooling
3.6.1 Demonstration of Newton’s Law of Cooling
3.6.2 Correction for Heat Losses in Calorimetry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit will introduce you to the different modes (conduction,

convection and radiation) of transferring heat energy from one place to
another. You will learn to explain the modes of heat transfer using
kinetic molecular theory. In addition, you will learn the important
concepts of heat energy – the heat capacities, their measurements and
determination. Finally, you will learn Newton’s law of cooling and
cooling correction.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the time you finish this unit, you will be able to:

• explain conduction, convection and radiation in terms of kinetic

molecular theory
• know the difference between good and bad conductors of heat
using metals water and air as examples
• explain the relationship between the heat supplied to a substance
and

o its temperature change at constant mass

o Its mass at constant temperature changes

• explain the terms specific heat capacity and thermal capacity

• explain why there is unequal rise in temperature for different
substances of the same mass supplied with the same quality of
heat
• state the assumptions underlying the experiments involving the
measurements of heat capacities
• calculate unknown qualities using the relation h = mc ∆ t when
no change of state is involved
• state Newton’s law of cooling
• explain the Newton’s law of cooling; and the cooling correction.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Conduction of Heat

It is an everyday experience that when you dip a silver spoon into a hot
tea, the handle of the spoon very quickly feels hotter than it was before.
The heat from the hot tea has been transferred along the metal handle to
the other end of the spoon by the process of conduction.
shown. The rods are first dipped into molten paraffin wax; when they
are withdrawn, a coating of wax solidifies on them. Boiling water is then
poured into the container so that the ends of the rods are heated to the
same temperature. The wax on the rods begins to melt from the hot ends
and after some time, it is found that the wax has melted to different
distances along the rods, with the copper rod having the longest length,
followed by aluminum, iron, lead while the wooden rod hardly melts at
all. This indicated that the different substances have different thermal
conductivities. Thus, in this experiment, copper has the greatest while
wood has the least thermal conductivity.

3.1.3 Explanation of Conduction in Terms of Kinetic

Molecular Theory

Layers of molecules
ABCD
Boiling Direction of heat transfer
Water

Fig. 5.2: Molecular explanation of conduction

Heat is transferred through solids mainly by conduction because of the

nature of solid molecules which are very close together. When we heat a
portion of solid directly as shown in Fig. 5.2, the solid molecules that
are directly heated (layer A) absorb the heat and vibrated faster than
before the heat was applied. They do not move from place to place
because of the strong forces of attraction between them. As they vibrate,
they pass on some of their heat energy to their neighbours (layer B)
which is turn vibrate faster and pass on some of the heat to the next
layer of molecules (c), and so on.. The heat continues to move in this
way until it reaches the end of the solid. All the molecules of the solid
eventually vibrate more rapidly about their fixed positions. We say that
thermal energy is transferred along the solid although the average
position of the molecules remains unchanged. When heat is transferred
in this way, it is said to be conducted along the body.
3.1.4 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Air

Boiling water

Heat
Ice wraped
in wire gaize
Fig. 5.3 Water, a bad conductor of heat

Water and other liquids are poor conductors of heat. The only exception
is mercury which is a metal in liquid form.

You can verify that water is a poor conductors of heat by the following
simple experiment.

You will wrap a piece of ice in wire gauze to make it sink to the bottom
of a test tube of water. Heat the top of the water as shown in Fig. 5.3 (to
prevent convection).

You will observe that the ice does not melt even when the water at the
top of the tube boils. This shows that water is a bad conductor of heat.

To show that air is a poor conductor of heat, hold your hand very close
but not touching the side of a kettle of boiling water. You can feel the
radiation but your hand is not burned although separated from the kettle
by a thin layer of air.

3.1.5 Practical applications of Good and Bad Conductors

Here, we will consider the following practical applications of good and

bad conductors

• Cooking pots and frying pans –made of metals to ensure quick

transfer of heat from the fire to the food being cooked. The
handles of cooking utensils are made of insulators so that the
utensils when hot can be held comfortably by the handles.

• Home cooling in the tropics – asbestos ceiling and thatched-roof

houses prevent heating up of houses because their materials are
insulators and do not conduct the heat from the sun into the room.
• The use of cloth to keep warm – clothes keep us warm by
trapping air (poor conductors) around the body. Clothing made
from woollen and fur materials are worn in the cold climates to
retain heat and keep the body warm.

• Use of rugs on floors – Heat transferred from one’s foot to the

floor is conducted away quickly by the floor and the foot feels
cold but the rug does not conduct away heat rapidly. It heats up to
the temperature of the foot.

• Cotton wool and air used as insulators to reduce to the minimum

the loss of heat in calorimeters. This is called lagging.

3.2 Convection of Heat through Liquids and Gases

You have seen that liquids and gases are generally poor conductors of
heat. However, heat is effectively transferred in them by convection.

• Convection is the process by which heat is transferred in a liquid

or gas by the actual movement of the heated fluid from the hotter
to the colder parts.

3.2.1 Convection Current in Liquids

You can observe convection in liquids by performing this simple

activity.

You will fill about two-thirds of a large round bottomed flask with
water. Drop a tiny crystal of potassium permanganate, using a long glass
tube, at the bottom of the flask. Heat the bottom of the flask just below
the crystal gently and observe the movement of the coloured liquid.

You will observe that the colour streaks of the potassium permanganate
rises upwards from the bottom of the flask where the heat was applied.
The streaks curve downwards at the top of the water as shown in figure
5.4 below.
You will use two sheets of thin plates, one painted black and the other
highly polished as shown in Fig. 5.6. Attach a cork to the reverse side of
each plate using a candle wax. Place a hot object like Bunsen burner or
burning candle half way between the two surfaces fixed vertically facing
each other and a few centimetres apart.

After a few minutes, you will notice that the wax behind the dull black
surface begins to slide off the plate. The wax behind the polished
surface does not melt and the cork remains fixed.

From this activity you can conclude that the dull black surfaces are
better absorbers of radiant heat than polished surface. Also, good
emitters of heat are good absorbers.

Heat energy falling on a body is partly absorbed and partly, reflected.

Black surfaces are good absorbers and poor reflectors; poor absorbers
are good reflectors of heat.

3.3.2 Applications of Radiation

• Heat from the sun gets to us by the process of radiation.

• House roofs in the tropics as well as factory roofs are brightly

painted in shiny aluminium colour to reduce absorption of heat
during the day. It also reduces the heat loss by radiation at night.

• It is not advisable to wear a dark coloured jacket in hot sunshine

because it will absorb heat and make the wearer feel hot and
uncomfortable. Also, a brightly painted car is preferred to a
black-painted car in Nigeria and other hot tropical countries. The
black-painted car will absorb and retain heat from the sun and
inside the car will be very hot.

• Petrol storage tanks are sprayed with silver paints to reflect heat
rays falling on it.

• A teapot has a silvery surface and an electric iron has a silvered

surface base in order to make each capable of retaining its heat
for a long period.

* A fire-fighting suit is bright and shiny so that it does not absorb

much heat to burn the fire man.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Vacuum flask is a good application of our knowledge of the three

modes of heat transfer. Look carefully at the vacuum flask in Fig.
5.7 and answer the question below.

Fig. 5.7 :Vacuum flask

(i) Why is it that a vacuum surrounds the liquid?

(ii) Why are the glass surfaces silvered?
(iii) Why is it that a cork or plastic stopper is used? (two reasons)
(iv) How will the heat escape if the vacuum seal is damaged.

2. An electrician is fitting an electrical heater 3.4 into a water tank.

Explain whether he should put the heater at the top or at the
bottom in order to heat the water in the tank.

3. Two motor cars of the same type are left in the sun. One is
painted black and the other white. Which will be hotter inside?
Why?

4. Explain why a tile floor feels colder to the feet than does a rug in
the same room.
3.4 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

3.4.1 Heat capacity – definition, symbol and unit

As you know, the supply of heat to a substance increases the average

kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance hence, an increase in
temperature of the substance. The average kinetic energy gained by the
molecules per degree Celsius rise in temperature is the heat (thermal)
capacity of the substance.

Definition

The heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat energy required to

raise the temperature of the substance by 10C (or 1K).

Symbol

C; S .I. unit: joule per Kelvin (J/K).

3.4.2 Specific Heat Capacity – Definition, Symbol and Unit

From simple experiment, we know that equal masses of different

substances require different quantities of thermal (heat) energy to raise
them through the same temperature range. To take care of these
differences and to make it possible to calculate the amount of heat
energy required to raise the temperature of a substance through a
definite temperature range, the idea of specific heat capacity was
introduced.

Definition

Specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance by 10C (or IK).

Symbol

C; S.I unit joule per kilogram per Kelvin (Jkg-1K-1)

You will note that

Heat capacity of a substance

C = Mass of the substance x specific heat capacity of the

substance.
When the temperature of a substance changes, heat energy given out (or
received).

Q = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change.

In symbols:
C = mc …………………….(1)
and Q = mc (θ2 - θ1) …………….(2)

where
C = heat capacity of the substance
Q = heat energy
M = mass of substance
C = specific heat capacity of the substance
θ2 = higher temperature
θ1 = lower temperature
(θ2 - θ1) = temperature change)

We call Q the quantity of heat – it is sometimes denoted by H.

3.5 Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity of a Substance

We call the instruments designed for experiments to measure quantities

of heat and specific heat capacities calorimeters. The simple calorimeter
used in school laboratories is usually made of copper which is a good
conductor of heat. This enables it to reach the same temperature as its
contents quickly.

The calorimeter is placed inside a larger container and the two are
separated by layers of lagging material- a poor conductor of heat. To
ensure an even temperature, a stirrer is provided while the lid prevents
evaporation of the liquid in the calorimeter. Here, we are going to
consider two methods of determining the specific heat capacities of
solids and liquids.

3.5.1 Method of Mixtures

(i) Specific heat capacity of solids by the method of mixtures.

Heat lost by hot metal = m3c (100 - θ2) J
Heat gained by water = (m2 – m1) x 4200 x (θ2 - θ1) J
Heat gained by calorimeter = m1 x 420 x (θ2 - θ1) J

Assuming no heat is lost to the surrounding and no heat is equally

gained, we have that:

Heat lost by the solid = heat gained by the calorimeter and water.

M3C [(100 - θ2) = (m2 - m1 ) x 4200 + (m1 x 420)] (θ2 - θ1)....(3)

You can calculate the value of c for the solid from equ (3) if the values
of the other variables are known.

Precautions

You will take the following precautions when performing the above
experiment in the laboratory.

• Lag the calorimeter to prevent heat exchange with the

surroundings.
• Transfer the hot metal quickly to the calorimeter without
splashing
• Stir the mixture gently

(ii) Specific heat capacity of liquids by method of mixtures.

We carry out this experiment as above. But here, we use a liquid of

unknown specific heat capacity instead of water in the calorimeter. We
also use a solid of known specific heat capacity. The specific heat
capacity is again calculated as follows:

Mass of calorimeter = m1 (kg)

Mass of calorimeter + liquid = m2 (kg)
Mass of solid = m3 (kg)
Initial temperature of liquid + calorimeter = θ10C
Temperature of mixture = θ02C
Temperature of hot solid = 1000C
Specific heat capacity of copper calorimeter = 420Jkg -1 K -1
Known specific heat capacity of metal = C1 J kg -1 K -1
Let specific heat capacity of liquid = C2 J kg -1 K -1
Heat lost by hot metal = M3 C1 (100 - θ2)
Heat gained by calorimeter = M1 x 420 x (θ2 - θ1)
Heat gained by liquid = (M2 - M1) x C2 x (θ2 - θ1)
Since,

heat gained = heat lost

We have

M1 x 420 x (θ2 - θ1) + (m2 - m1) x C2 x (θ2 - θ1)

= M3 C1 ( 100 - θ2) ………(4)

The specific heat capacity of the liquid C2 would then be calculated from
equ. 4 when all the other variables are known.

3.5.2 Electrical Method

Specific heat capacity of solid by electrical method

Fig. 5.9: Measurement of specific heat capacity of solid by electrical

method.

Two holes are bored in the block whose specific heat capacity is to be
measured as shown in Fig. 5.9. The block is weighed .A thermometer
and an electrical heater are respectively inserted in each of the holes. A
little oil is dropped in each hole to help establish a good thermal contact
with the block. The metal block is surrounded with a lagged jacket to
reduce heat losses.

The initial temperature of the block is noted and the electrical heater is
switched on. The current is allowed to flow for some time until the
temperature rises by about 150C. The exact time of flow of a known
current is measured with a stop-watch and the initial and final
temperatures of the metal block are measured by the thermometer.

The specifc heat capacity is calculated as follows:

Let: Mass of block = m (kg)

Value of steady current = 1 (A)
Value of p.d. across heater = V(v)
 Temeprature rise of block = θ0 C
Time of flow of currnt = t (secs)
Specific heat capacity of block = C(Jkg -1K-1)

Heat supplied by current = H = 1Vt joules.

Heat required to raise the temperauter of block

By θ0 C = mc θ

Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings, we have.

1Vt = Mc θ
C = 1vt J kg -1 K -1 …………….5
mθ

(iii) Specific heat capacity of a liquid by the electrical method

Fig. 5.10: Determination of specific heat capacity of liquid by electrical

method
In this experiment, the apparatus is set up as shown in Fig. 5.10. First,
we weigh a plastic container and then reweighed when about two –thirds
full of the liquid (e.g. water). We then connect the ammeter, voltmeter
and heating coil as shown in the circuit. A plastic stirrer and a
thermometer are then fitted into the container through holes in the
wooden lid. The initial temperature of the liquid is read and recorder.
The current is now switched on end the rheostat adjusts to give a
suitable steady current for about 3 minutes.

This is followed by stirring the liquid gently as it is being heated. The

current is then switched off and the final temperature read.
We calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid as follows:

Mass of liquid = mkg

Initial temperature of liquid= θ1 C
0

Final temperature of liquid = θ20C

Current flowing in circuit = IA
Voltage across heating coil = V volts
Time of flow of current = t seconds
Let the specific heat capacity of liquid = CJkg-1K-1
Rise in temperature

Heat gained by liquid = mc (θ2 - θ1) joules Electrical energy supplied

to liquid = 1vt joules

Heat gained by liquid = electrical energy supplied

This implies that :
MC (θ2 - θ1) = 1Vt

C = 1 vt ………………...7
M(θ2 - θ1)
Precautions

• Cooling the water with ice to about 100Cbelow room temperature

to reduce heat lost to the surrounding.

• Heating water until its final temperature is about 100C above

room temperature for above reason.

3.6 Newton’s Law of Cooling

• Newton’s law of cooling stats that for a small difference of

temperature between body and its surrounding , the rate at which
a body loses heat is proportional to the temperature difference
between the body and its surroundings.

The law is approximately true in still air only for a temperature

excess of about 200oC or 300oC. It is true for all excess
temperature in conditions of forced convection of the air, i.e. in a
draught. At low excess temperature less than 10oC, radiation is
the major contributing factor to the rate of cooling of an object.

3.6.1 To demonstrate Newton’s law of cooling, we plot a temperature

(θ) – time (t) cooling curve for hot water in a calorimeter placed
in a draught (Fig. 5.11(a))
If QR is the room temperature, then the excess temperature of the water
is (θ - θR). At various temperature such as θ in Fig. 5.11 (b), we may
draw targets such as APC to the curve. The slope of the target in degrees
per second, gives us the rate of fall of temperature when the water is at
the temperature θ.

If we then plot these rates against the excess temperature θ - θR, as in

Fig. 5.11 ( c ), we will obtain a straight line passing through the origin.

The result of the experiment shows that the heat lost per second by
water and calorimeter is proportional to the rate of fall of the
temperature. This is in agreement with Newton’s law of cooling.

3.6.2 Correction for Heat Losses in Calorimetry

When a hot body is transferred to a liquid in a calorimeter, the

temperature of the liquid and the calorimeter rises rapidly above that of
the surrounding. From Newton’s law of cooling, you can deduce that an
amount of heat is lost to the surrounding because allowance is not made
for this when reading the final temperature of the mixture. As a result,
the final temperature recorded is less than the actual final temperature
and correction has to be made for this.

Newton’s law of cooling enables us to estimate the heat lost in an

experiment in the method of mixtures.

In doing this experiment, we take the temperature of the mixture at half

minutes intervals and plot it against time as shown in Fig. 5.12.
(2) An electric heat rated 20v 60w, fitted into a metal block supplied
heat to the block of mass 2kg, and specific heat capacity of 460 J
kg-1 K -1. Calculate the temperature rise in the block if the current
flows for 15 minutes

Solution

Power of heater = 1v = 60w

Heat produced by heater in 15 minutes = power x time (in seconds)
= 60 x 15 x 60J = 54000J.

Let temperature rise in metal block = θK

Heat gained by metal block = 2 x 460 x θJ.

Heat produced by heater = Heat gained by metal block

= 54000 = 2 x 460 x θ
θ = 54000 = 58.7k or 58.7oC
2 x 460

The temperature rise in the block is 58.7 K or 58.70C.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Distinguish between heat capacity and specific heat capacity of a

substance. Explain how the specific heat capacity of a substance
could be determined.

2. The specific heat capacity of zinc is 384Jkg -10C-1. What does the
statement mean? A 60 watt heating coil is used for 3 minutes to
heat a metal block of 700 g and specific heat capacity of 1.0J /
g0C. What is the temperature rise?

3. The hot water of a bath delivers water of 950C at a rate of 5 kg

min-1. The cold water tap of the bath delivers water at 350C at the
rate of 15 kg min-1. If both baths are left on for 5 mins, calculate
the final temperature of the bath water, ignoring heat losses to the
surrounding.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you learned about the various modes of heat transfer
(conduction, convection and radiation), their molecular explanations and
applications. You also learned about heat capacity and specific heat
capacity. The determination of specific heat capacity for solids and
liquids using method of mixtures and the electrical method. Finally, you
learned about Newton’s law of cooling and cooling correction.

5.0 SUMMARY

• Conduction is a method of transferring heat with the aid of

molecules which vibrate about their mean position.

• Metals are good conductors while non metals are usually poor
conductors.

• Convection is a method of transferring heat which involves actual

movement of molecules from one position to another.

• Convection currents could be observed in liquids and gases.

• Radiation is a method of transferring heat which does not require

any type of material medium.

• Heat transferred by radiation travels with the speed of light.

• Good absorbers of heat (eg dull black surfaces ) are also good
radiations.

• Poor absorbers of heat (eg. shinny bright surfaces) are also poor
radiations.

• Heat (thermal) capacity of a substance is the amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of the substance by 10C.

• Specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of 1kg of the substance by 10C.

• In activities involving measuring of heat quantities, it is assumed

that heat lost by a hotter substance is equal to heat gained by a
colder substance.

• Newton’s law of cooling states that for a small difference in

temperature between a body and its surrounding, the rate at which
a body loses heat is proportional to the temperature difference
between the body and its surroundings.
6.0 TUTOR -MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Name the three modes of heat transfer. State the major difference
between them.

2. What is the final temperature of a mixture if 2 kg of water at 800C

is added to 2.5 kg of cold water at 100C. (Neglect heat absorbed
by the container specific heat capacity of water is 4200J kg-1 k-1).

3. 4 kg of a certain metal is heated to 86oC and then dropped in 1.5

kg of water at 26oC. If the final temperature of water is 40oC,
calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal (specific heat
capacity of water = 4200 J kg -1 K-1).

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS

Anyakoha, M.W. (2000). New School Physics for Senior Secondary

Schools. Onitsha Africana FEP.

Anyakoha, M.W. (1991). Physics at a glance. Onitsha. Africana FEP.

Awe, O and Okunola, O.O. (1992). Comprehensive Certificate Physics.

Ibadan University Press.

Okpala P.N. (1990). Physics Certificate Year Series for Senior

Secondary School Ibadan NPS Educational.

UNIT 6 LATENT HEAT AND EVAPORATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Latent Heat
3.1.1 Concept of Latent Heat
3.1.2 Molecular Explanation of Latent Heat
3.1.3 Types and Definitions of Latent Heat
3.2 Numerical Problems on Latent Heat
3.3 Measurement of Specific Latent Heat
3.3.1 Experimental Determination of Specific Latent
Heat of Fusion of a Solid (Ice)
3.3.2 Experimental Determination of the Specific Latent
Heat of Vaporization (Steam)
3.4 Application of Latent Heat
3.5 Melting and Boiling Point
3.5.1 Melting Point
3.5.2 Boiling Point
3.5.3 Effects of Impurities and Pressure on the Melting
and Boiling Points of a Substance
3.6 Evaporation and Boiling
3.6.1 Concept of Evaporation
3.6.2 Factors that affect the rate of Evaporation
3.6.3 Concept of Boiling
3.6.4 Evaporation and Boiling
3.6.5 Differences between Evaporation and Boiling
3.7 Vapour and Vapour Pressure
3.7.1 Concept of Vapour
3.7.2 Concept of Vapour Pressure
3.7.3 Saturated and Unsaturated Vapour
3.8 Concept of Sublimation
3.9 The Working Principle of some Common Devices
3.10 Humidity
3.11 Humidity and Weather
3.12 Formation of Dew, Mist, Fog and Rain
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 5 of this last Module you learnt about transfer of heat and heat
capacities. In this unit, you will learn about latent heat – its concept and
definitions. You will also solve numerical problems on latent heat. In
addition, you will learn to determine and measure the specific latent heat
of fusion of ice and of vaporization as well as applications of latent heat.
Furthermore, you will be introduced to Evaporation. You will learn the
concepts of evaporation, vapours, boiling, sublimation and the effect of
pressure and impurities on melting and boiling points. Finally, you will
learn about relative humidity, dew point, humidity and weather.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit you will be able to:

• determine the melting point of a solid

• determine the melting point of a given liquid
• list the effects of impurities and pressure in:

o the melting point of solid (ice)

o the boiling point of a liquid

• explain the terms:

o latent heat of fusion

o latent heat of vaporization

• solve simple problems involving latent heat

• distinguish between evaporation and boiling
• explain sublimation and dew point
• explain the working principles of such common devices as

o refrigerator
o airconditioner
o pressure cooker

• explain the effects of humidity on personal comfort.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Latent Heat

3.1.1 Concept of latent heat

You must have observed that when sufficient heat is given to a solid it
melts into liquid. If heat continues to be supplied, the temperature
remains constant until all the solid has changed to liquid. The heat
supplied to melt the solid is called latent heat because the temperature
gave no indication of the heat required to change from a solid to a
liquid.

Also, if the liquid is heated further, its temperature rises until it reaches
a constant temperature. Then, it begins to change into vapour or gas
Again this heat is called latent heat because of change of state from
liquid to gas which gave no indication of heat required to change the
substance from liquid to gas.

That is during change of state,

Solid (heat) Liquid (heat) Gas

(Constant temperature) (Constant Temperature)

Temperature remains constant although heat is being supplied.

The heat supplied or removed, which causes a change of state without a

change in temperature is called latent heat. It is called latent (meaning
hidden) heat because it is not made apparent by a change in temperature.

3.1.2 Molecular Explanation of Latent Heat

You already know that the molecules of a solid are kept in average fixed
position by strong forces of attraction. Latent heat represents the energy
used in breaking down the forces which hold the molecules of a solid in
a regular pattern. In liquid, it is the energy required to overcome the
forces of attraction between molecules of a liquid. The molecules are
then practically independent of each other and exist as gas.

3.1.3 Types and Definitions of Latent Heat

There are two types of latent heat namely:

i. Latent heat of fusion (melting) (from solid to liquid)

ii. Latent heat of vaporization (gas or vapour) (from liquid to gas)

Definitions

i. Latent heat of fusion of a solid is the heat energy that is used to

change a solid at its melting point to liquid at the same
temperature (the energy is stored in the hot liquid)

ii. The specific latent heat of fusion of a solid is the energy required
to melt 1kg of the solid at its melting point.

It is equal to the energy given out by 1 kg of the liquid in order to

solidify at the freezing point.

If Q heat energy is supplied to melt mass M of solid at its melting point,

then the specific latent heat L is given by

L = Q
M

Q = ML

where: L = specific latent heat

Q = heat energy
M = mass of solid at melting point

Unit Jg-1 or Jkg -1

iii. Latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the heat energy that is

used to change a liquid in its boiling point to liquid at the same
temperature (the energy is stored in the vapour)

iv. The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the heat

required to change unit mass of it from liquid at its boiling point
to vapour without a change in temperature.

3.2 Numerical Problems on Latent Heat

i. A bucket has a mass of 1 kg and specific heat capacity of 378 kg-1

k-1. It contains 4 kg of water at 40oC. When 0.91 kg of ice at 0oC
is added and completely melted the temperature of water is 18.2
o
C. What is the specific latent heat of fusion of ice?

(Assume no heat exchange with the surroundings)

Solution

Since no heat is lost to the surrounding:

Heat lost by water + heat lost by bucket

= Heat used for melting ice + heat gained by iced water from 00C to
18.20C . Eqn…….(1)

Recall that heat lost: Q = MC (θ2 - θ1)

where Q = heat energy
C = heat capacity of the substance
M= mass of substance
θ2 = higher temperature
θ1 = lower temperature

Hence:

Heat lost by water = 4 x 4200 x (40 -18.2) J

Heat lost by bucket = 1 x 378 x (40 -18.2) J
Heat gained by iced water = 0.91 x 4200 x (18.2 – 0)0C
Heat used to melt 0.91 kg of ice = 0.91L
where L = the specific latent heat.

To obtain the specific latent heat of the fusion of ice we will

substitute the above values in ‘eqn 1’ and solve for L.

That is

Heat lost by water + heat lost by bucket

= Heat used for melting ice + heat gained by iced water from 00C to
18.20C
⇒ MC (θ2 - θ1) for water + MC (θ2 - θ1) for bucket
= ML for ice + MC (θ2 - θ1) for iced water

⇒ [4 x 4200 x (40 – 18.2)J)]+ [(1x 378 x (40 – 18.2)J)]

= 0.91L + [0.91 x 4200 x (18.2 - )J]

0.91L = [4 x 4200 x (40 – 18.2) J)] + [(1 x 378 x 40 – 18.2)J]

- [0.91 x 4200 x (18.2 – 0)J]
= 366240 + 8240.4 – 69560.4
= 374480.4 – 69560.4

∴L = 304920
0.91
= 335076.92 Jkg-1
To determine the specific latent heat of fusion of solid (ice) by method
of mixture, we use the apparatus as set up in the diagram above. The
calorimeter is weighed empty and reweighed when it is about half-filed
with water whose temperature is about 50C above room temperature.
Some small ice blocks are dried with blotting paper and then added to
the water in the calorimeter. The mixture is gently stirred and more dry
ice added until the temperature of the mixture is about 5 0C below room
temperature. The lowest temperature of the mixture is noted after all the
ice particles has melted. The calorimeter is reweighed to find the mass
of ice added. The result is then calculated as follows:

Assuming

Mass of calorimeter = M1
Mass of calorimeter + water = M2
Mass of calorimeter + water + ice = M3

Then:
Mass of water = M2 - M1
Mass of ice = M3 - M2

If: Original temperature of water = θ10C

Final temperature of mixture = θ20C
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200(Jkg-1)
Specific heat capacity of calorimeter +
Material = C(Jkg-1)
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = l(Jkg-1)
Heat required to melt the ice = (M3 - M2) l(joules)

Heat required to raise the temperature of melted ice from 0C to θ20C

=(M3 - M2) x 4200 x θ2 (joules)

Heat lost by the calorimeter and water in cooling from θ1 to θ2

= (M1, C + (M2 - M1) x 4200)] (θ1 - θ2)J

Since:

Heat gained = Heat lost

(M3 - M2) l + ((M3 - M2) x 4200) (θ1 - θ2)

From the above equation, the latent heat of fusion l can be calculated.
Precautions

You will take the following precautions when performing the above
experiment in the laboratory:
Use only dry pieces

Add small quantity of ice at a time

Stir the mixture gently to obtain even temperature.

ii By electrical method

Electrical
immersion heaters
(12 v supply)

Pieces of ice

Filter funnels

Retort stands

Beakers

(a) Experimental (b) Control

Fig. 6.2: Latent heat of fusion by electrical method

To determine the specific latent heat of fusion of solid (ice) by electrical

method, we use the apparatus as set up in the diagrams above (Fig. 6.2)

A 50W immersion heater is placed in a glass filter tunnel and some

pieces of ice are packed round the heater. The heater is connected to a
12v supply with the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.2a. Since ice will melt at
room temperature the same set-up is arranged as in figure 6.2b with the
heater not connected to the 12v supply. This forms a control for the
experiment. Two similar beakers of the same mass are used to collect
drip water by placing one below each beaker.

Quickly empty the beakers when the drip rates from the funnels appear
to be the same. Then replace them and switch on the current. Ensure
that the heater is in good thermal contact with the ice throughout the
experiment. Allow current to flow for about 200 seconds and note the
value of the current and the potential difference. When the drip rate
appear to be constant again, remove the beakers and weigh them with
their contents. Use your result to calculate the specific latent heat of
fusion in the following manner:

Assuming these results are obtained:

Mass of the experimental beaker + water = M1

Mass of the control beaker + water = M2
Mass of the ice melted by electrical heating = M2 - M1
Current = I
Potential difference = V (12v)
Time of flow of current = t
Energy supplied to ice = VIt

This implies that:

Energy supplied to melt 1 kg of ice

= Energy supplied to ice

Mass of ice melted by electrical heating

= V x I x t = Vit Jkg-1

M2 - M1 M2 - M1

You should note that:

1. If Q heat energy is supplied to melt mass m of solid at its melting

point then the specific latent heat L is given by

L = Q
M

Q = ML

2. The immersion heater should never be switched on unless it is in

a liquid or a block of metal as it will overheat in air.
Let:

Specific latent heat of vapourisation of steam = L(Jkg-1kg-1)

Mass of water = M2 - M1 (kg)

Mass of steam = M3 - M1 (kg)
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200(Jkg-1k-1)
Specific heat capacity of calorimeter material = c(Jkg-1k-1)
Heat lost by steam in condensing = (M3 - M2)joules

Heat lost by condensed steam in cooling from

1000C to θ20C = (M3 - M2) x 4200 x (100-θ2)J

Heat gained by water and calorimeter

= (M2 - M1) x 4200 x (θ2 - θ1) + M1 x C (θ2 - θ1)

Since
Heat gained = Heat lost
(M2 - M1) x 4200 x (θ2 - θ1) + M1C (θ2 - θ1)
= (M3 - M2)L + (M3 - M2) x 4200 x (100 - θ2)

Hence

L, the specific latent heat of vaporization can be calculated from the

above equation.

Precautions:

While performing the above experiment you should take the following
precautions:

Use only dry steam

Take care to prevent the calorimeter from receiving or losing heat from
or to its surroundings.

Cool the water to about 100C below room temperature before passing
the steam. Continue to pass the steam until the temperature of mixture
is about 100C above room temperature.

Stir the mixture continuously throughout the experiment.

 To power unit
i.

Resort
stand

Heater

Beaker + water
Lead
shot

Balance

Fig. 6.4: Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization by

electrical method

To determine the specific latent heat of vaporization by electrical

method, you will set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.

Place a polystyrene (polyphenylethene) cup (beaker) on one side of a

balance and partly fill it with water. Suspend an immersion heater in the
water so that it is clear of the sides and bottom.

Switch on the current. When the water is boiling, pour leadshots into
the other pan until balance is almost obtained. As the water boils off,
the two sides will balance. At this instance start a stop-watch. Do not
allow any condensed water vapour to drop back into the cup. Now,
place a 20 g mass on the pan beside the cup. When 20 g of water boils
off, the two sides will again balance. Note the time when this happens.
State your results as shown below:

Power rating of heating coil = p

Time noted = t
Energy supplied (electrical) = pxt
Mass of water boiled off = 0.020 kg
Calculate the specific heat of vaporization from:

L = pxt

0.02

3.4 Applications of Latent Heat

From the foregoing, you must have realized that whenever a liquid is
converted into vapour, heat is absorbed from the liquid or any object in
contact with it. The heat is the latent heat used in causing the
transformation from liquid to vapour. The phenomenon is utilized in the
working principles of some common household devices such as: (i)
Pressure cooker (ii) The refrigerator (iii) The air conditioner.

Later in this unit, we would discuss the working principle of these

devices.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Explain the terms:

(i) Latent heat of fusion

(ii) Specific latent heat of fusion
(iii) Latent heat of vaporization
(iv) Specific latent heat of vaporisation

2. A bucket has a mass of 100 g and specific heat capacity 420

Jkg-1k-1. It contains 400 g of water at 200C. How many grammes
of steam at 1000C are needed to raise the temperature of the water
and bucket to 950C? Specific latent heat of steam L = 2.26 x 10 6
Jkg-1.

3. (a) Define latent heat (b) Describe the measurement of the

specific latent heat of (i) fusion of ice (ii) vaporization of water
under school laboratory conditions.
iv. Warm the test tube in a beaker of water and record the
thermometer readings at interval of 30 seconds.

v. Stop taking readings 4 minutes after the naphthalene has

completely melted.

vi. Plot a graph of temperature against time.

vii. Remove the test tube of molten naphthalene from the water bath
and allow it to cool.

viii. Record the readings of the thermometer at the intervals of 30

seconds.

ix. Stop taking of readings 10 minutes after the naphthalene has

completely solidified.

x. Tabulate your readings and use it to plot a graph of temperature

against time.

a. Table of Values

Temperature (0C) Time (sec)

(b) Graph

Temperature (0C) Temperature (0C)

Melting ----------- Freezing ------

Point Point

(a) Time (b) Time

Fig. 6.6 : Heating and cooling curves of naphthalene

Observation and Results

You would observe that as the solid is heated, the temperature rises. At
a certain stage, the temperature remains constant until all the solid has
changed to liquid. This is shown by the flat portion (plateau) of the
graph (Fig. 6.6a) after which the temperature starts to rise again.

This temperature at which the naphthalene melts is constant and is

called the melting point of the solid naphthalene.

When the naphthalene is cooling, energy is abstracted from it. At a

stage, the liquid naphthalene starts to solidify. This is shown in the flat
(plateau) portion of the cooling curve (Fig. 6.6b) after which the
temperature starts to fall.

This temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid is called the

freezing point of the liquid. You should note that the melting point and
the freezing point of a substance are the same.

3.5.2 Boiling point

The boiling point of a substance as you know is the temperature at

which the substance begins to boil and changes from liquid to gaseous
state (without further change in temperature).

To find the boiling point of a substance (Water).

For you to determine the boiling point of a liquid, you should follow
those steps below:
 (b) Graph
Temperature (0C)

Boiling -----------
Point

Time

Fig. 6.8: The boiling point of a liquid (water)

Observation and result

You must have observed that as you heat the water in the conical flask,
its temperature rises and the liquid evaporates. As the heating is
continued, the temperature is found to rise until the water begins to boil.
During boiling bubbles of air formed inside the liquid rise to the surface.
The temperature of the liquid remains steady during boiling. This is
indicated in the flat portion of the graph (plateau) Fig. 6.8 this constant
temperature is called the boiling point of the liquid.

3.5.3 Effects of Impurities and Pressure on the Melting and

Boiling Points of a Substance

The melting and boiling points of a substance are affected by pressure

and impurities. You can verify these by investigating these scientific
observations.

i. Effect of pressure on boiling point

Increase in pressure increases the boiling point of a liquid. The pressure

cooker is a practical application of the effect of pressure on boiling
point. Increased pressure of the trapped air (gas) above the liquid in a
pressure cooker raises the boiling point of the liquid. Thus a high
cooking temperature is reached very fast. Hence, food is cooked faster
in the pressure cooker.
temperature than 00C, the freezing point of pure water (or melting point
of ice)

3.6 Evaporation and Boiling

3.6.1 Concept of evaporation

You are familiar with the concept of evaporation. You know that
evaporation is the change of liquid to vapour without the application of
heat to the liquid. It is a slow and quiet process which takes place at all
temperatures. This phenomenon can often be seen in our daily lives.
For instance;

i. when a piece of wet cloth is spread out in the open during

harmattan, it dries up quickly;

ii. liquids left in shallow open containers soon disappear;

iii. when some liquid perfume is poured into a cup and left
uncovered, the cup is found to be empty after few hours.

3.6.2 Factors that affect the rate of evaporation

Can you guess the factors that affect the rate of evaporation? Compare
your answers with these factors that affect the rate of evaporation. They
are:

i. Temperature – Evaporation is more rapid if the surrounding

temperature is higher. This is because the process of evaporation
involves absorbing the latent heat of vaporization from the
surroundings. The warmer the surroundings, the more the amount
of heat supplied by it to provide the latent heat of vaporization.

ii. Pressure – The greater the pressure, the slower the evaporation
and vice versa. If an open container of water is placed inside a
bell-jar from which air has been pumped out (reduced pressure),
evaporation takes place at faster rate.

iii. Area of liquid surface exposed – The greater the surface area of
liquid exposed, the more rapid will be the evaporation.

iv. Dryness of the air – The drier the air (i.e the less water vapour it
contains) the quicker the evaporation. Water droplets on a watch-
glass evaporate faster if left in the open than when covered with a
bell jar. As the water evaporates, the air in the bell jar gets filled
with water vapour and this slows down the evaporation. In the
 case of the watch glass in the open, the water vapour quickly
escapes into the open air and more evaporation takes place. This
is the reason why wet clothes dry faster in dry weather than in
wet weather.

v. Motion of the Air – Wet clothes placed in the draft from a fan
will dry up sooner than if placed in still air. The air stream or
wind removes the vapour and brings fresh and drier air into
contact with the liquid. Hence, evaporation is more rapid.

vi. Nature of the Liquid – Different liquids evaporate at different

rates. The lower the boiling point of a liquid, the greater will be
the rate of evaporation. For example, mercury with a boiling
point of 3570C hardly evaporates while either (boiling point
350C) evaporates very rapidly. Liquids like ether which
evaporates rapidly are called volatile liquids.

3.6.3 Concept of boiling

Boiling occurs when a substance in the liquid state is thrown into violent
agitation as a result of continuous supply of heat to the liquid molecules.

3.6.4 Evaporation and boiling

Whether a liquid changes rapidly into its gaseous state by boiling or by

slow evaporation, it requires the same amount of latent heat to do so. In
the case of boiling, this heat is supplied by the heat source. In the case
of evaporation where there is no particular heat source, the liquid
obtains its latent heat of vaporization from the surroundings.
 Evaporation Boiling
i This is the change from liquid to This is the change from
vapour state at temperature below liquid to vapour state at the
normal boiling point boiling point of the liquid.

ii Evaporation takes place at all Boiling takes place at a fixed

temperatures temperature for a particular
liquid.

iii. It occurs when molecules escape It takes place throughout the

from the surface of a liquid volume of the liquid

iv. It is influenced by pressure, It is influenced by pressure

and

temperature, dryness of the the amount of impurities

atmosphere, wind and amount of present in the liquid
exposed area of the liquid

v. It takes place slowly and proceeds It occurs at a constant rate for

more rapidly as the temperature a particular temperature
increases.

vi. It is a silent phenomenon It is a noisy phenomenon

vii. It causes cooling It does not cause cooling

3.7 Vapour and Vapour Pressure

3.7.1 Concept of Vapour

As you know a liquid changes into vapour if sufficient heat energy is

supplied to it. The change from liquid to vapour takes place throughout
the entire liquid at a particular temperature.

3.7.2 Concept of Vapour pressure

If a liquid is allowed to evaporate in a closed container, the vapour

formed will exert a certain pressure. This is known as vapour pressure.

3.7.3 Saturated and unsaturated vapour

i. Saturated vapour – A saturated vapour is one that is in contact

with its own liquid in a closed space. The pressure exerted by
such a vapour is the saturated vapour pressure (S.V.P).
The saturated vapour pressure varies with temperature as shown in Fig.
6.10.

S.V.P

Fig. 6.10: Saturated vapour pressure (S.V.P) vs temperature

The saturated vapour pressure of water is approximately equal to the

external pressure when water boils. It does not obey the gas laws.
100oC
ii. Unsaturated vapour – An unsaturated vapour is one that is not
in contact with its own liquid in a closed space. The gas laws are
approximately obeyed in such a vapour.

According to the kinetic theory, the number of molecules leaving the

liquid during evaporation is greater than those returning to the liquid in
an unsaturated vapour. On the other hand, there is equal number of
molecules leaving and returning to the liquid in a saturated vapour.

At higher temperatures, the energy of the molecules increases and more

molecules are then able to leave the liquid and the saturated vapour
pressure will thus increase.

3.8 Concept of Sublimation

This is a process whereby some solid substances when heated, change

directly into gaseous state without the intermediate liquid state. For
example, solid iodine and solid carbon dioxide changes from solid state
to gaseous state without changing to the intermediate liquid state.
3.9 The Working Principle of Some Common Devices

You have seen that whenever liquid is converted into vapour, heat is
absorbed from the liquid or any object in contact with it. This heat is the
latent heat used in causing the transformation from liquid to vapour.
The absorption of the latent heat from the liquid brings about a fall in its
temperature. The faster the evaporation, the greater is the fall in
temperature. This phenomenon is utilized in the working principle of
these common household devices.

i. The Refrigerator

The cooling effect of evaporation is used in a refrigerator. The volatile

liquid used is usually liquid ammonia or Freon. Ammonia evaporates
inside coiled copper tubes surrounding the freezing compartment,
assisted by a pump which reduces the pressure. As it evaporates in these
coils, the ammonia absorbs heat from the surrounding air, thus cooling
the inside of the refrigerator and its contents. The vapour produced is
pumped away and expressed in a condenser where it condenses to liquid
ammonia. The heat released during this condensation is quickly
dissipated by an arrangement of cooling fans at the back of the
refrigerator.

The liquid is recycled through the evaporator coil (Fig. 6.11). The
process is repeated. This sets up a continuous circulation of liquid and
vapour.
 Freezing
compartment

Vapour
Liquid
Pump

Cooling fins

Fig. 6.11: Household electric refrigerator

ii. Control of humidity (Air conditioning)

The humidity of an enclosure could be controlled to suit our personal

comfort. The basic principle of the working of an air conditioner is
illustrated in Fig. 6.12 below.

Evaporator

Cool air moves

into the room

Warm air in the

room
Warm air from
Fig. 6.12 : Domestic air conditioner outside the room
Condenser
Hot air
The air conditioner contains a powerful fin which draws air from outside
to inside the enclosure (e.g a room, a car). It first cleans the air by
removing dust particles from it. It further humidifies the air to a
specified value (to make it cold) before circulating it within the
enclosure. The humidity value of the circulating air is usually controlled
by setting the air conditioner to certain convenient levels. Air
conditioners are generally found in cars, public buildings, offices, ships
and so on.

iii. Pressure Cooker

The basic principle of the working of the pressure cooker is based on the
fact that increased pressure raises the boiling point of water. Substances
inside a pressure cooker are heated at about a pressure of 2 atmosphere.
Such a high pressure can raise the boiling point of water to about 1200C.
Food items will cook more quickly when subjected to such a high
temperature condition inside a pressure cooker (Fig. 6.13)

Variable
cooling valve
Safety valve
+
Handle

Water boils at
120oC

Source of
heat

Fig. 6.13: A pressure cooker

Pressure cookers are found very useful by people and explorers in

mountainous areas of the world where atmospheric pressure is generally
lower than normal, where water can boil at 910C. This makes cooking
to be expensive in terms of time and fuel. Pressure cookers are usually
used to remedy the situation.
3.10 Humidity

The atmosphere contains varying amounts of water vapour. Humidity is

the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

i Relative humidity

If the air is saturated or nearly saturated with water vapour, it is

described as very humid. If the air is highly unsaturatged it is said to be
dry. Humid weather makes one feel uncomfortable as perspiration does
not evaporate easily from the skin into the already unsaturated air. Also,
very dry air evaporates the moisture from the skin too rapidly. This is
harmful to the skin. A comparison between the amount of moisture
actually present in the air with the amount of moisture it can hold when
saturated is termed relative humidity. This is expressed as a ratio which
indicates the extent to which air is saturated with water vapour.

Mass of water vapour in a given volume of air

Relative Humidity =

Mass of water vapour required to saturate the

Same volume of air at the same temperature

When the atmosphere is fully saturated with water vapour, the relative
humidity reaches 1. also, since the pressure exerted by the water vapour
is proportional o its mass per unit volume, the relative humidity can also
be expressed thus:

Pressure of water vapour present in the air

Relative Humidity =

Saturated vapour pressure at the same air pressure

ii Dew point

This is defined as the temperature at which water vapour present in the

air is just sufficient to saturate it. It is dependent upon prevalent
atmospheric conditions like temperature, wind and the amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere. For instance, when ice blocks are kept inside
glass tumbler, moisture would form on the outside surface of the
tumbler after sometime. This is because the cold glass surface cools the
air around it to temperature at which the water vapour contained in the
air is sufficient to saturate the air.

Saturated vapour pressure at dew point

Relative Humidity = Saturated vapour pressure at original
Temperature of air
3.11 Humidity and Weather

The need for effective weather forecasting is becoming very important

in all countries of the world. However, to achieve a good level of
accuracy in such weather forecasting, it requires accurate determination
of the humidity level of the air. This job in most cases is left for the
meteorologist (specialists in aspects of atmospheric physics). Their
reports concerning humidity and weather are found very useful in
scheduling or flights in airports, navigation, radio transmission,
factories, food storage, farming etc.

Also, the construction of certain household equipment such as

refrigerators, air conditioners and the like require knowledge of how to
keep the relative humidity of an enclosure at a specified level. The
formation of clouds, rain, fog, hailstone and snow depends among other
things on the relative humidity of the atmosphere.

3.12 Formation of Dew, Mist, Fog and Rain

i Formation of dew

It is a common experience that in the evening, the ground and the air in
contact with it begins to cool as they lose heat through radiation. A
clear sky and still air may cause temperature air to fall even lower so
that the air becomes nearly saturated with water vapour. Furthermore,
the surfaces of some objects particularly grass and other plants, give off
water vapour, This adds to the amount of vapour in the air. When
compared with the surrounding air, these surfaces are good conductors
and lose heat sooner than the air. As the temperature of the ground and
the grass falls below the dew point, the moisture in the surrounding air
will condense and be deposited in their surfaces as dew.

If the dew point is below 00C, the vapour changes into the solid form of
ice crystals called frost.

ii Formation of mist and fog

If the air near the surfaces of the land cools until it reaches dew point,
the water vapour begins to condense around tiny dust particles in the
atmosphere. These particles have surfaces on which the condensed
vapour collects. Such a collected of water particles is known as mist.

A thick mist is called a fog. The water particles of the mist or fog are
small enough to float in air. When they become larger, they fall as rain.
iii Clouds and rains

A thick mist formed high up in the atmosphere is referred to as a cloud.

During the day, the land mass is warm and the warm air containing
water vapour rises above the land. As the air moved upwards, it
expands (due to reduced pressure at high altitudes) and becomes cooler.
This cooling process, if continued long enough, causes the air to become
saturated and its water vapour eventually condenses to form tiny
droplets of water. When this happens, a cloud begins to form. The tiny
droplets of water combine to form larger drops which fall as rain.

You should note that not all clouds are formed as water droplets. Some
clouds like the fleecy cirrus clouds which form at great heights are
composed of ice crystals because the water vapour in the air condenses
at a height where the temperature is below freezing point.

Raindrops that are carried by strong convection currents to greater

altitudes becomes frozen as they are cooled below 00C by the cold air at
such heights. These frozen raindrops fall as hail.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Explain why yam cannot be easily cooked in an open pot on top

of a high mountain.
2. When two ice blocks are pressed together, they stick together.
Explain this observation.
3. Distinguish between evaporation and boiling.
4. List and discuss the factors that influence the rate of evaporation.
5. What do you understand by vapour, vapour pressure and
saturated vapour pressure?
6. Define the terms:

i. Relative humidity
ii. Dew point
iii. Sublimation

7. Write short notes on the formation of the following:

i. Dew
ii. Clouds
iii. Fog
iv. Mist
v. Rain
4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you learned about latent heat – its concept and definitions.
You also learned how to solve numerical problems involving latent heat.
In addition, you learned how to determine and measure the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice and of vaporization as well as applications of
latent heat. You also learned about evaporation vapours, boiling
sublimation and the effects of pressure and impurities on melting and
boiling points. Finally, you learned about relative humidity, dew point
and humidity and weather.

5.0 SUMMARY

The heat supplied or removed from a body which causes a change of

state without a change in temperature is called latent heat.

Latent heat of fusion of solid is the heat energy that is used to change a
solid at its melting point to liquid at the same temperature.

The specific latent heat of fusion of a solid is the energy required to melt
1 kg of the solid at its melting point.

Latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the heat energy that is used to

change a liquid in its boiling point to liquid at the same temperature.

The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the heat

required to change unit mass of its liquid at its boiling point to vapour
without a change in temperature.

Increased pressure lowers the freezing point and raises the boiling point
of water.

Dissolved substances in a liquid lower the freezing point and raise the
boiling point of the liquid.

The factors that affect the rate of evaporation are:

i. Temperature
ii. Pressure
iii. Area of liquid surface exposed
iv Dryness of the air
v Motion of the liquid
vi Nature of the liquid

The vapour contained in an enclosed space above its liquid is said to be

saturated when the number of molecules escaping from the liquid per
unit time is equal to the number returning to the liquid per unit time.
The pressure it exerts is called the saturated vapour pressure of the
liquid.

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its saturated

vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

Mass of water vapour in a given volume of air

Relative Humidity =

Mass of water vapour required to saturate the

Same volume of air at the same temperature

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define latent heat?

2. Explain why a pressure cooker boils food more quickly than on
ordinary pot.
3. What are the differences between evaporation and boiling?

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS

Anyakoha, M.W. (2000). New School Physics for Senior Secondary

Schools Onisha: Africana FEP.

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1992). Comprehensive Certificate Physics

Ibadan: University Press.

Okpala, P.N. (1990). Physics Certificate Year Series for Senior

Secondary Schools. Ibadan: NPS Educational.
UNIT 7 EXPANSION OF GASES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Expansion of Gases
3.1.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gas and its
Assumptions
3.2 Boyle’s Law
3.2.1 Statement of Boyle’s Law
3.2.2 Verification of Boyle’s Law
3.2.3 Use of Kinetic Theory to Explain Boyle’s Law
3.3 Charles’ Law
3.3.1 Statement of Charles’ law
3.3.2 Verification of Charles’ Law
3.3.3 Cubic Expansivity of a Gas
3.3.4 Use of Kinetic Molecular Theory to Explain
Charles’s Law
3.4 Pressure Law of Gay – Lussac’s Law
3.4.1 Statement of Pressure Law
3.4.2 Verification of Pressure Law
3.4.3 Use of Kinetic Molecular Theory to Explain
Pressure Law
3.5 Ideal or the General Gas Law
3.5.1 The General Gas Law or Equation
3.5.2 The Ideal Gas Equation
3.6 Conversion to Standard Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P)
3.7 Intermolecular Energy and Force
3.8 Pressure Calculations
3.9 Introduction of Temperature
3.10 Deductions from the Ideal Gas Equation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will learn how the three properties of a gas-the
temperature, the pressure and the volume that are necessary to describe
the state of the gas are related for a given mass of gas in the gas laws.
Also, you will learn how to state, verify and derive the general gas
equation for the ideal gas based on the laws. Finally, you will learn
about other laws governing the real gases.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the time you finish this unit, you will be able to:

• Explain, using the ideas of the kinetic theory of gases

o The variation of volume with temperature of a gas when the

pressure is kept constant
o The variation of pressure with volume of a gas when the
temperature is kept constant

• Explain Charles’ and Boyle’s laws of gases

• Deduce the general gas law from a given mass of gas which
obeys Charles’ law
• Identify the limitations of the gas laws
• Solve simple problems involving the gas laws
• Explain

o Molar gas constant

o Intermolecular energy and forces

• State

o Assumptions of the elementary kinetic theory of gases

o Graham’s law of diffusion
o Avogradro’s law
o Dalton’s law of partial pressures
o Maxwell’s distribution law.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Expansion of Gases

We classify substances in the gaseous state as gases or vapours. You

know that a gas has no volume of its own but takes the volume of its
containers. The volume of a gas is changed by varying the pressure of
the gas or by changing the temperatures of the gas.

Thus, the pressure, volume and temperature of a gas may change when
any one of the quantities change. Hence, the thermal expansion of a gas
is complicated by the fact that the volume can be altered by a change of
temperature and of pressure. For us to study the behaviour of a gas with
respect to the three variables: volume, temperature and pressure, we
investigate the relation between two of the variables while the third one
is kept constant.
3.1.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gas and its Assumptions

We use the kinetic molecular theory of gases to explain the effect of

temperature on the volume and pressure of a gas. The theory makes the
following assumptions.

• A gas is considered to be made up of a large number of molecules

acting like elastic spheres.

• The molecules are in a state of constant motion knocking against

each other and the walls of the containing vessel.

• The particles exert attractive forces on one another.

• The particles possess kinetic energy due to their motion.

• The volume of the molecules of a gas is negligible compared with

the volume of the container.

3.2 Boyle’s Law

Here, we will consider the relationship between the pressure and the
volume of a fixed mass of a gas given by Boyle’s law in 1660.

3.2.1 Statement of Boyle’s law

Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume, provided that the temperature is kept
constant.

In symbols, Boyle’s law is written as

P = 1 or PV = constant
V

Where P = pressure
V = Volume
of a fixed mass of gas.

3.2.2 Verification of Boyle’s law

We can verify Boyle’s law in the laboratory using simple apparatus

shown in Fig. 7.1.
 Air

hcm

Closed glass Open

glass tube B
Tube C

Fig. 7.1: Verification of Boyle’s law

To do this, we entrap a fixed mass of dry air with mercury is a closed

glass tube of uniform cross-section attached by rubber tubing to a
mercury reservoir. The volume V of the dry air is proportional to the
length L of the air column because the tube is of uniform cross-sectional
area. The pressure and volume of the dry air are varies by the open limb
vertically up or down. The length which we read from the metre scale is
taken as the volume of the gas while the atmospheric pressure (Po) is
read from a fortin barometer.

When the mercury surface in B is lower than that in C, the pressure (P)
of gas is given by:

P = (Po + h) cm Hg
But, when the mercury surface in B is higher than that in C, the gas
pressure (P) is given by.
P = (Po + h) cm Hg.

By lowering or raising the tube B we would obtain a set of readings of L

and h. A table of these readings is then made as shown below in Table
7.1.

l cm hcm (Po ± h)cm 1 cm -1

l
The values obtained in an earlier experiment when used in plotting
graphs give the following result as shown in Fig. 7.2

• Graph of P against V (ie Po + h against L) gives a curve as shown

in Fig. 7.2a.

• Graph of P against 1 (ie Po + h against 1 )

V l

is a straight line graph passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 7.2b.
The straight line graph indicates that the pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume of air or any gas at constant temperature.

(a) V

x
x
x
x
x
1
(b) /V

Fig. 7.2: Graph of Boyle’s law

You will take the following precautions when performing this

experiment.

• Ensure that the entrapped air is dry by adding a small quantity of

concentrated sulphuric acid into the tube before adding mercury.

• Ensure that there is no air bubbles in the mercury.

• Ensure constant temperature by allowing the system to attained
the temperature of its surrounding. You will do this by waiting
for a few minutes after each variation of h and L.

• Take the readings when the mercury levels are steady and avoid
parallax error of the metre rule while reading it.

Worked example

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is 96 cm Hg when the volume of

the gas is 5.0 m3. Find the pressure of the gas when its volume becomes
7.0 m3. Assume the temperature is constant.

Solution

From Boyle’s law

PV = constant at constant temperature

= P1 V1 = P2 V2
96 x 5 = P2 x 7
P2 = 96 x 5
7
= 68.57 cm Hg

3.2.3 Use of Kinetic Theory to Explain Boyle’s Law

Now, let us consider a given mass of gas at constant temperature. At this

constant temperature, the average velocity of the gas molecules is
constant and the number of collisions they make per unit area of the wall
of the containing vessel is also constant. Hence, the gas exerts a certain
constant pressure, P, on the walls of the vessel.

If we now double the original volume of the gas, the gas molecules will
be spread out and it will take longer time to bombard the walls and
hence, fewer impact per second. As a result, the pressure of the gas will
be halved. Thus, at constant temperature, volume of a gas increases as
pressure decreases.

On the other hand, if we halve the original volume of the gas, the gas
molecules will be more closely pack and then it will take less time to
bombard the walls of the containing vessel. The gas pressure increases
(double) as more impact per second are made. Hence, at constant
temperature, decrease in volume of a gas leads to increase in pressure.
This means that the pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely with
its volume at constant temperature in accordance with Boyle’s law.

This is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 7.3

P4

P1 P2 P23
1 3 4

Fig. 7.3: A representation of Boyle’s law

3.3 Charles’ Law

Here we will consider the connection between the change in volume

with temperature change of a fixed mass of gas kept at constant pressure
published by Charles in 1787 and independently by Gay-Lussac in 1802.

3.3.1 Statement of Charles’ Law

Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas increases by
1/273 of its volume at 00C per degree Celsius rise in temperature
provided its pressure remains constant.

We can also state Charles law using Kelvin temperature scale. You are
aware that a temperature toC on the Celsius scale is related to an
absolute or Kelvin temperature T by the equation

T (K) = 273 + toC

Using the Kelvin scale therefore, Charles’ law can be stated as

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute

temperature if its pressure remains constant.

In symbols, we express Charles’ law as

V ∝ T ; if pressure is kept constant

V = KT
Or V = K
T
⇒ V1 = V2
T1 T2
where
You can also use Charles’ law experiment to obtain the value of the
cubic expansivity of a gas at constant pressure. This is defined as:

Increase in volume per unit volume at 00C per degree Celsius rise in
temperature.

That is, if
૪ = cubic expansivity of a gas
Vo = volume at temperature 00C
Vt = volume at temperature t oC

Then
૪ = vt - vo
Vo x t
We have from careful experiments obtained the fraction ૪ in the
1
equation above to be same for all gases and is equal to /273.

You know the cubic expansivity of a gas unlike that of solids and liquids
is the same irrespective of the nature of the gas. Also, the cubic
expansivity of a gas is calculated from the fractional increase of its
volume at 00C?

Worked example

1. A fixed mass of gas is heated at contnat presure from 25 0C to

80oC. If the volume at 250C is 150 cm3, what volume will it
occupy at 800C.

Solution

From Charles’ law

V1 = V2
T1 T2
V1 = 150 cm3 ; V2 = ?
T1 = (273 + 25 ) K = 298 K
T2 = ( 273 + 80 ) K = 353K

Substituting in the above equation gives us

150 = V2
 298 353

= V2 =150 x 353 cm3

298
= 177. 68 cm3
The volume to be occupies by the gas at constant pressure and at 800C is
177.68 cm3.

2. The volumes of a fixed mass of gas at constnat pressure are 150

cm3 at 00C and 178 cm3 at 800C. Calculate the cubic expansivity
of the gas .

Solution

You will recall that the cubic expansivity (૪) of a gas is given by the
equation

૪ = Increase in volume from 00C

Volume at 00C x temperature rise

That is,

R = V1 - Vo
Vo x t

= 178 - 150
150 x 80

= 28
12000

= 2.33 X 10-3 /0C or 2.33 X 10-3/k

3.3.4 Use of Kinetic Molecular Theory to Explain Charles’

Law

To do this, let us consider a fixed mass of a gas confirned in a vessel at

constant pressure. Now, if we heat this gas, the molecules acquire more
K. E., move faster and collide more often with the walls of the vessel.
As a result, increases the pressure they exert. For us to maintain a
constnat pressure, we then increasae the volume of the containing vessel
to allow the same mass of gas to travel a longer distance before striking
the walls of the container. Thus an increase in temperautre leads to an
increase in the gas volume. This is in agreement with Charles’s law.
3.4 Pressure Law or Gay- Lussac’s Law

Here, we will consider the connection between the pressure change with
temperature of a fixed mass of gas maintained at constant volume. This
connection was given by Gay-Lussac in 1802 and these are two
alternatives of stating the relation (law).

3.4.1 Statement of Pressure Law

• We can now state the law in the two alternative ways thus:

The law states that the presure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume
increase by ½73 of its pressure at 00C for every degress Celsius (or
Kelvin) rise in temperature.

We write the above in symbols as

Pt = Po 1 + t
273

where Po = pressure at temperature 00C

Pt = Pressure at temperature t0C.

The alternative way of stating the pressure law is:

• The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is

proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.

In symbols, we state the law as P α T

Or P = constant
T

That is, P1 = P2
T1 T2
3.4.2 Verification of Pressure Law

Fig. 7.6 below shows one of the forms of apparatus we use to verify
Pressure law. It consists of a large bulb F filled with dry air; a mercury
manometer with one side BC open to the atmosphere. This is connected
to F by a very narrow tube D.
We place the bulbs F inside a large vessel and cover it completely
with water as shown in Fig. 7.6.
Fig. 7.6: Pressure – temperature change apparatus (constant volume)

First, we record the initial temperature t of the gas. We then raise or

lower the open side BC of the manometer until the top of the mercury on
the other side reaches the level L. We then read and record the height h
of the mercury column above L and the atmospheric pressure A.

We warm the air in the bulb F by heating the water round the bulb and
stirring it gently. At a suitable temperature rise of between 15 to 200C,
we take away the burner and raise BC until the mercury level on the
other side again reaches L. We then read and record the new difference
in levels, h, between B and L; and the temperature t.

We repeat these experimental procedures with higher temperature for

the air. In each case, BC is raised until the mercury level on the other
side is at L. Thus, maintaining the volume of the air constant. We read
and record the corresponding values of h and t. These readings are as
shown in Table 7.3 below.

Table 7.3: Readings of temperature and the corresponding values of h

and p

t/0C h / mm Hg P ( = A + h or A – h)

Using the values from the table, we plot a graph of the pressure P
against temperature t at constant value. If B is above L, p = A + h but if
B is below L, P = A – L.
 P α T at constant volume

Therefore, P1 = T1
P2 T2

= 0.20 = 273 + 10 = 283

P2 273 + 25 298

P2 = 0.20 x 298 = 0.21 N/ mm2

283

3.4.3 Use of Kinetic Molecular Theory to Explain Pressure

Law

Do you remember that heat is a form of energy and that when a gas is
heated the molecules gain kinetic energy and move about faster. As a
result, the momentum changes produced by the molecules at the walls
per impact is greater. This also leads to increase in the number of
impacts of each molecule per second because of the increase in speed.

Thus, the pressure increases with rise in temperature at content volume.

This is statement of Gay-Lussac’s law or Pressure law.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1 (a) State and describe experiments to verify:

(i) Boyle’s law

(ii) Charles’s law
(iii) Pressure law.

(b) Use kinetic molecule theory to explain the above laws.

2. Describe as fully as you can the kinetic picture of a gas and show
how its accounts for the change in pressure when the temperature
of a gas is increased at constant volume.

3. The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume increase

from 60 cm of mercury at 100C to 95 cm of mercury at 800C.
What would be the pressure of the air at 00C?

4. A fixed mass of air occupying 500 cm3 at 150C was heated to

850C. What was its new volume?
3.5 Ideal or the General Gas Law

3.5.1 The General Gas Law or Equation

From the gas laws we know that the volume of a gas depends on both its
temperauture and are pressure. We can sum up the relationship between
these three variable – volume, temperature and pressure to obtain the
general gas law. We have that.

From Boyle’s law,

PV = constnat if T is constant from,
From Charles’ law,
V = constant if P is constant
T
From the Gay – Lussac’s or pressure law,
P = constant at contact volume
T

We can combine any two of these three equations to obtain the general
gas equation.

That is,
PV = K
T

where K is a constant for a fixed mass of gas.

⇒ p1 V1 = P 2 V2
T1 T2
Where

P1 V1 are the gas pressure and volume at temperature T1 and P2 V2are

the gas pressure and volume at temperature T2.

We can use the general gas equation to find any of the variable in the
equation when the other two are known. For instance, if we know the
initial volume of a gas, we can determine the final volume when both its
pressure and temprature changes.

That is,
V2 = P1 V1 T2
P2 T1

You have to note that

• The law does not hold good when a gas is near its liquefying
temperature.

• The relationship ‘PV/T = constant’ is a law for an ideal gas. It

assumes that the attraction between the gas molecules and the
volume they occupy are both neglible. But, this is not the case for a
real gas.

3.5.2 The Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation relate generally presure, volume and absolute
temperature of a fixed mass of gas as we have already discussed in the
general gas equation of section 3.5.1 above .

That is,

PV = constant
T

However, for an ideal gas, at standard temperature and pressure, for 1

mole of gas we have
PV = RT
where R is a constant known as the molar gas constant and its value is
8.31J mol -1 K -1

The above equation is refrred to as the Ideal gas equaton. It holds true
for all gases.

For n moles, however, we have

PV = nRT
Or PV = nR
T

The above equation is the general form and is called the equation of
states of an ideal gas.

3.6 Conversion to Standard Temperature and Pressure

(S.T.P)

You have seen that the volumes of gases changes remarkely with
changes in temperature and pressure. For this reason, it is not easy to
compare result of experiments between countrie or towns across the
world having temperate and tropical climates. This observation made
scientist to choose 00C or 273K and 760 mm Hg or 1.01 x 105 Nm-2 to be
the standard temperature and pressure (s. t. p. ) at which gas volumes are
given. This makes it easy and possible for us to compare volumes of
different masses of a gas.

3.7 Intermolecular Energy and Forces

We know from common experience that forces exist between molecules.

These intermolecular forces arise from two main causes:the potential
energy (interactions with surrounding molecules and is electrical in
nature) and thermal energy (the kinetic energy which depends on the
temperature of the substance concerned) of the molecules. The
intermoleular forces between molecules decrease rapidly as the distance
between molecules increases.

Thus for small distances between molecules (solid or liquid) the

intermolecular forces are repulsive and increases rapidly as the
separation is reduced.

The forces between molecules vary in the form shown in Fig. 7.8
below . /I/*t shows the variation of the potential energy V between two
molecules at a distance r apart.

V+ A F = - dV
dt
Repulsive
r < ro Attractive
r > ro
Equilibrium
M R = roRepulsive
O
r < ro
B ro

C G
X Y

Fig. 7.8 : Molecular potential energy and force

At the point B, the intermolecular energy is zero. For distances shorter

than OB, the force is negative. Along the part AB, the P.E is positive.
The force between the molecules is always given by F = -dv/dr = -
potentital gradient. At distances greater than OB, the force is attractive.
It increases with distance, reaches a maximum and then decrease
rapidly. Along CD, the force is attractive and it decreases with distance
r according to an inverse – power of r. Along ABC, the force is
repulsive. This variation of F with r is illustrated in figure 7.8. At C, the
 Momentum before impact = mu
Momentum after impact = -mu

Therefore, momentum change on impact

= mu - ( - mu )
= -2 mu

Time taken for the molecule to move across the cube to the opposite
face and back to x is 2l/u

Therefore
Momentum change per second

= momentum change
time
= 2mu = mu2
21/u l

force on x = mu2
l

You know that

Pressure on x = force
area

This implies that pressure on x

= force = mu2 = mu2 …….(i)

area l x l2 l3

For N molecules in the cube, in the x direciton we have

P = mu21 + mu22 + mu23 + ……………+ mu2N
l3 l3 l3 l3
P = m ( u1 + u22 + u32 + ……….+ u2N) ……(ii)
l3
where

U12, U22, u32 …….U2N are components of velocity of various magnitudes

in the OX direction.

If U2 represents the average or mean value of all the squares of the

velocity components in nthe OX direction, that is,
U2 = u12 + u22 + u32 + ………+ u2
N

Which implies that

 N u2 = u12 + u22 + u23 +………u2N
N
Then equation (ii) becomes
P = N mu2 ………………….(iii)
l3
Now, if we consider a larger mumber of molecules of varying speed in
randon motion, the mean square of the component speed in any of the
three axes is the same.

That is
2 2 2
U = V = w
For each molecule, however
C2 = u2 + v2 + w2
Thus, the mean square C-2 is given by
2
C = U2 + V2 + w
2

Therefore
2 2
U = 1/3 C
From equation (iii)
2
P = 1 NmC
3 l3
The number of molecules per unit volume
n = N/l3
Hence, P = 1/3 nmC-2 ………………..(i)

where n is in molecules per metre3, m in kilogram and c in metre per

second. Unit of pressure: newton per metre2 (Nm-2)

3.9 Introduction of Temperature

We can move a step further by considering the volume of gas containing

N molecules. The number of molecules per unit volume is

n = N or n = N
V l3

Thus, the pressure of a gas from equ (1) becomes

2 2
P = 1/3 nmC = 1 N mc
3V
Therefore
2 …………………….(2)
PV = 1/3 NmC
Equation (2) is similar to the equation combining Boyle’s law and
Charles’ law PV = RT
We can by making kinetic theory consistent with the observed behaviour
of a gas, write
1/3 N mc-2 = RT ……………….(3)
2
Here, we assume that the mean square speed of the molecules C is
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.

The kinetic energy of a molecule moving with a speed c is ½ MC2.

Thus, the kinetic energy of translation of the random motion of the
molecule of a gas is

½ mc2.

Relating ½ mc2 to the temperation enables us to put eqn (3) in the form

RT = 1/3 N mc2 = 2N (1/2 mc-2)

3
where
½ mc2 = 3 R T…………(4)
2 N
Thus, the average kinetic energy of translation of a molecule is
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.

We note that the ratio R/N is a universal constant . R is the gas

constant .while N is the number of molecule.

R = K
N

where k is the gas constant per molecule and also universal constant
called Boltzmann’s constant.

Substituting K in eqn. (4) gives us

½ Mc2 = 3KT ……………………..(5)
2

Boltzmann’s constant relates energy to temperature and is usually

given in joules per degree.

K = ½ mc2
3 T
2

The value of k is 1.38 x 10-23 Jk -1.

3.10 Deductions from the Ideal Gas Equation.

i Determination of the value of root mean square (r ms ) speed
( √C2 )

You will recall from equation (1) that

2
P = 1/3 nm C …………….(i)

where n = number of molecules per unit volume ( N/V).

Nm = total mass M of the gas per volume

Substituting the above in equ (i)

gives us p = 1/3 m C
2
…………………(6)
V

You know that density ρ is mass per unit volume. Therefore, when we
substitute ρ for m/v in eqn (6) we have

P = 1/3 e C-2 ………………….(7)

Or p = 1 C2
ρ 3
which gives us
C-2 = 3p …………..(8)
ρ

The square root of C 2 is called the root – mean – square speed.

That is

C-2 = 3p
ρ

But p RT =
V
Hence root-mean –square (rms) speed
2
C = 3RT …………………(9)
M

Since ρ = m/v and v = 1 unit volume

2
To find the value of the root-mean-square. C , we subatitute
known values of ρ and p for hydrogen at STP.

At STP ρ for hydrogen = 0.09 kgm-3

P = gρ H

Where g = acceleration due to gravity 9.81 ms-2

ρ = density of mercury = 13600 kgm3
H = barometer height = 760 mm = 0.76 m
Substituting the above in eqn (8) gives us

C
2
= 3p = 3xgρ H
ρ ρ of hydrogen

= 3 x 9.81 x 13600 x 0.76

0.09

= 304188. 48
0.09
= 3.37 x 106 m2S-2
Therefore, the root mean square, C 2 is

C2 = 3.37 x 106
= 1838. 44
= 1.84 x 103 ms -1
Table 7.2 values of C 2 at 0oC for the common gases

Gas C2
Hydrogen 1.839 x 103mS-1
Helium 1.310 x 103 mS-1
Nitrogen 0.493 x 103 mS-1
Oxygen 0.461 x 103 mS-1
Carbon dioxide 0.392 x 103 mS-1
ii Graham’s Law of Diffusion

Graham, an English Chemist, in 1933 discovered that a less dense

gas diffuse through a porous material much faster than a denser
gas. He carried out an experiment to investigate this relationship
and the result of his investigtion is commonly referred to as
Graham’s law of diffusion.

Graham’s law of diffusion states that at constant temperature

and pressure the rate of diffusion of a gas through porous
material is inversely proportional to the square root of its
density.
 In symbols,
Rate of diffusion α 1
ρ

iii Avogadro’s law

Avogadro (1776 – 1856), an Italian professor put forward a

hypothesis that illuminated Chemistry as Newton illuminated
mechanics. This hypothesis he puts forward was accepted in the
middle of 19th century anad is now known as the Avogadro’s law.

Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contained equal number of molecules.

We recognize 1cm3 of gas at STP as containing 2.6 x 1019

molecules.

Avogadro,s law enables comparison of gas masses by chemical

methods.

iv Daltons’ Law of Partial Pressure

According to Dalton in 1801, the total pressure of a mixture of

gases is the sum of the pressures which each individual gas
would exert if it were confined alone in the volume occupied by
the mixture. This statement first credited to Dalton is generally
referred to as Dalton’s law of Partial Pressure.

The law states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is

equal to the sum of the pressures of the individual gases
assuming each gas occupies the volume of the mixture at the
same temperature.

We express the law mathematically as

Ptotal = PA + PB + PC ………….Pz
where

total = total pressure of the mixture and PA, PB, Pc ……..pz are the
partial pressures exerted separately by the individual gases A, B, C,
…………Z that make up the mixture.

v Maxwell’s Distribution Law

• P = 1 or PV = constant
• V
• Where P = pressure
• V = volume

• of a fixed mass of gas.

• Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas

increases by 1/273 of its volume at 00C per degree Celsius rise in
temperature, provided its presure remains constant.

• OR. The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to

its absolute temperature if its pressure remains constant.

• V = k
• T
• Where V = volume, T = kelvin temperature

• Pressure or Gay – Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a fixed

mass of gas at constnat volume increases by 1/273 of its pressure
at 00C for every degree Celsius (or kelvin) rise in temperature.

• Pt = Po ( 1 + t/273).

• Or The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is

proportional to the absolute temperautre of the gas.

• P = constant
T

• The General Gas Equation / law

• PV = constant
T

• The ideal Gas Equation

• PV = nRT

• Root - mean - sqaure (rms) speed

• C
2
= 3RT/M

• Or C
2
= 3P/ρ
• Graham’s law of diffusion states that at constant temperature and
pressure the rate of diffusion of a gas through porous material is
proportinal to the square root of its density

• Rate of diffusion α 1/ ρ

• Avogadro’s law states that equal volume of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contained equal number of molecules.

• Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure of a

mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the presures of the
individual gases assuming each gas occupies the volume of the
mixture at the same temperature.

• Ptotal = PA + PB + PC +……….Pz

• Maxwell’s molecular speed distribution law states that for a

sample of gas containing N molecules, that
• Nv = 4π N (m/2 π Kt )3/2 V2 e-mv2kT

6.0 TUTOR -MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State Boyle’s law and express the law mathematically. What are
the precautions to be taken when verifying this law in the
laboratory?

2 (a) Mention five assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory

of gases
(b) Use kinetic molecular theory to explain Charles’ law.

3. (a) Write down the ideal gas equation

(b) A fixed mass of gas occupies 10-x m3 at S.t.P What
volume does it occupy at 270C if its pressure is 62 on of
mercury?

4. Given the equation

p = 1/3 nmC-2
where
n = number of molecules per unit
nm = total mass M of the gas
per unit volume M of the gas
per unit volume

Show that the root mean square speed is given by the expression