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 Fluid Mechanics
second edition

The multidisciplinary field of fluid mechanics is one of the most actively developing
fields of physics, mathematics and engineering. This textbook, fully revised and
enlarged for the Second Edition, presents the minimum of what every physicist,
engineer and mathematician needs to know about hydrodynamics. It includes new
illustrations throughout, using examples from everyday life: from hydraulic jumps in a
kitchen sink to Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities in clouds and geophysical and
astrophysical phenomena, providing readers with a better understanding of the world
around them. Aimed at undergraduate and graduate students as well as researchers, the
book assumes no prior knowledge of the subject and only a basic understanding of
vector calculus and analysis. It contains 41 original problems with very detailed
solutions, progressing from dimensional estimates and intuitive arguments to detailed
computations to help readers understand fluid mechanics.

g r e g o r y fa l kov i c h is Professor in the Department of Physics of Complex

Systems at Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. He has researched in
plasma, condensed matter, fluid mechanics, statistical and mathematical physics and
cloud physics and meteorology, and has won several awards for his work.
“This is by far the best textbook on modern Fluid Mechanics I’ve seen in decades. It will
benefit both beginners, who wish to learn the field from scratch, and mature scientists
and engineers in need of catching up on its contemporary status. Throughout the book,
the emphasis is on the place of each particular equation in the “grand scheme of things”,
and on their internal connections. For this reason even researchers actively involved in
this exciting field will find it an invaluable source of ideas and inspiration.”
Professor Alexander Zamolodchikov,
Rutgers University
“This short book is elegant and poetic. It is written with passionate admiration for
its subject, fluids. Mathematicians interested in the Navier Stokes model for fluids
can gain intuition into its unknown mysteries. They can gain informed speculations
about long time prediction and they can realize the value of knowing about the
possible singularities of ideal fluids without friction. Mathematicians and physicists
not primarily interested in fluids can learn why they might well profit from a familiarity
with the rich panorama surveyed in this work.”
Professor Dennis Sullivan,
City University of New York and Stony Brook University

“Fluid dynamics is a classic subject, and one whose importance only grows larger with
time. Grisha Falkovich’s text combines concision with precision as it leads physicists
through a course on fluids at the depth they expect. A unique feature of this text is its
treatment of dispersive wave interaction, modulations, collapse and solitons alongside
traditional topics like turbulence and shocks. My students and I learn from it with
pleasure during courses on both fluid and plasma physics.”
Professor Patrick Diamond,
University of California San Diego

“Gregory Falkovich has written a must-read for anyone in need of a concise and
basic introduction to fluid dynamics. Since fluids and gases are everywhere, from
microorganisms to galactic scales, there might be more in need than realized. . . At
the same time, advanced readers will appreciate the overall quality and some gems like
the sections on quasi-momentum and dispersive waves. I have this book on my shelves
and highly recommend it!”
Professor Massimo Vergassola,
University of California San Diego
 Fluid Mechanics
second edition

G R E G O RY FA L KOV I C H
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107129566
DOI: 10.1017/9781316416600
© Gregory Falkovich 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-107-12956-6 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition page ix

Prologue xii
1 Basic notions and steady flows 1
1.1 Definitions and basic equations 1
1.1.1 Definitions 1
1.1.2 Equations of motion for an ideal fluid 3
1.1.3 Hydrostatics 6
1.1.4 Isentropic motion 8
1.2 Conservation laws and potential flows 12
1.2.1 Energy and momentum fluxes 13
1.2.2 Kinematics 14
1.2.3 Kelvin’s theorem 16
1.2.4 Irrotational and incompressible flows 18
1.3 Moving through fluids 24
1.3.1 Incompressible potential flow past a body 25
1.3.2 Moving sphere 26
1.3.3 Moving body of an arbitrary shape 27
1.3.4 Quasimomentum and induced mass 30
1.4 Viscosity 35
1.4.1 Reversibility paradox 36
1.4.2 Viscous stress tensor 37
1.4.3 Navier–Stokes equation 39
1.4.4 Law of similarity 42
1.5 Stokes flow and the wake 44
1.5.1 Slow motion 44
1.5.2 The boundary layer and the separation phenomenon 48
1.5.3 Flow transformations 51

v
vi Contents

1.5.4 Drag and lift with a wake 54

Exercises 58
2 Unsteady flows 63
2.1 Instabilities 63
2.1.1 Kelvin–Helmholtz instability 63
2.1.2 Energetic estimate of the stability threshold 67
2.1.3 Landau’s law 68
2.2 Turbulence 70
2.2.1 Turbulence onset 70
2.2.2 Cascade 72
2.2.3 Turbulent flows 76
2.2.4 Mixing 81
2.3 Acoustics 87
2.3.1 Sound 87
2.3.2 Riemann wave 90
2.3.3 Burgers equation 93
2.3.4 Acoustic turbulence 96
2.3.5 Mach number 98
Exercises 103
3 Dispersive waves 106
3.1 Linear waves 107
3.1.1 Surface gravity waves 108
3.1.2 Viscous dissipation 111
3.1.3 Capillary waves 113
3.1.4 Phase and group velocity 114
3.1.5 Wave generation 117
3.2 Weakly nonlinear waves 121
3.2.1 Hamiltonian description 121
3.2.2 Hamiltonian normal forms 125
3.2.3 Wave instabilities 126
3.3 Nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NSE) 128
3.3.1 Derivation of NSE 128
3.3.2 Modulational instability 130
3.3.3 Soliton, collapse and turbulence 134
3.4 Korteveg–de-Vries (KdV) equation 139
3.4.1 Waves in shallow water 140
3.4.2 The KdV equation and the soliton 141
 Contents vii

3.4.3 Inverse scattering transform 144

Exercises 147
4 Solutions to exercises 149
4.1 Chapter 1 149
4.2 Chapter 2 168
4.3 Chapter 3 180
Epilogue 193
Notes 196
References 201
Index 203
 Preface to the Second Edition

Why study fluid mechanics? The primary reason is not even technical, it is
cultural: A natural scientist is defined as one who looks around and understands
at least part of the material world. One of the goals of this book is to let you
understand how the wind blows and the water flows so that while flying or
swimming you may appreciate what is actually going on. The secondary reason
is to do with applications: Whether you are to engage with astrophysics or
biophysics theory or build an apparatus for condensed matter research, you
need the ability to make correct fluid-mechanics estimates; some of the art
of doing this will be taught in the book. Yet another reason is conceptual:
Mechanics is the basis of the whole of physics and engineering in terms of
intuition and mathematical methods. Concepts introduced in the mechanics
of particles were subsequently applied to optics, electromagnetism, quantum
mechanics, etc.; here you will see the ideas and methods developed for the
mechanics of fluids, which are used to analyze other systems with many
degrees of freedom in statistical physics and quantum field theory. And last
but not least: at present, fluid mechanics is one of the most actively developing
fields of physics, mathematics and engineering, so you may wish to participate
in this exciting development.
In the time of ever-increasing specialization, the universal language of fluid
mechanics is one of the few remaining means of communications between
people from very distant fields and disciplines. Using this simple and intuitive
language, biophysicists and astrophysicists can tell each other about some
of their recent achievements; meteorologists can comprehend what happens
inside a collider while high-energy physicist can understand the cloud above
his head; and physicists and mathematicians can appreciate and help to solve
the problems that engineers face. My personal motivation in writing this book
was to bring this language up-to-date and to express fluid mechanics using

ix
x Preface to the Second Edition

modern notions (like symmetry breaking and renormalization), most of which

actually originated in the discipline.
Even for physicists who are not using fluid mechanics in their work, taking
a one-semester course on the subject would be well worth the effort. This
is one such course. It presumes no prior acquaintance with the subject and
requires only basic knowledge of vector calculus and analysis. On the other
hand, mathematicians and engineers may find in this book several new insights
presented from a physicist’s perspective. In choosing from the enormous
wealth of material produced by the last four centuries of ever-accelerating
research, preference was given to the ideas and concepts that teach lessons
whose importance transcends the confines of one specific subject as they prove
useful time and again across the whole spectrum of modern physics. To much
delight, it turned out to be possible to weave the subjects into a single coherent
narrative so that the book is a novel rather than a collection of short stories.
We approach every subject as physicists: start from qualitative consid-
erations (dimensional reasoning, symmetries and conservation laws), then
use back-of-the-envelope estimates and crown it with concise yet consistent
derivations. Fluid mechanics is an essentially experimental science, as is any
branch of physics and engineering. Experimental data guide us at each step,
which is often far from trivial; for example, energy is not conserved even in
the frictionless limit and other symmetries can be unexpectedly broken, which
makes a profound impact on estimates and derivations.
Lecturers and students using the book for a course will find out that its
13 sections comfortably fit into 13 lectures plus, if needed, problem-solving
sessions. Sections 2.3 and 3.1 each contain two extra subsections that can be
treated in a problem-solving session (specifically, Sections 2.3.4, 2.3.5, 3.1.2
and 3.1.5, but the choice may be different). For second-year students, one
can use a shorter version, excluding Sections 1.3.4, 3.2–3.4 and the small-
font parts in Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.3 and 2.3.4. The lectures are supposed to be
self-contained so that no references are included in the text. The epilogue and
endnotes provide guidance for further reading; the references are collected in
the reference list at the end. Those using the book for self-study will find out
that in about two intense weeks one is able to master the basic elements of fluid
mechanics. Those reading for amusement can disregard the endnotes, skip all
the derivations and half of the resulting formulae and still be able to learn a lot
about fluids and a bit about the world around us, helped by numerous pictures.
In many years of teaching this course at the Weizmann Institute, I have
benefited from the generations of brilliant students who taught me never to
stop looking for simpler explanations and deeper links between branches of
 Preface to the Second Edition xi

physics and fields of science. Different versions of the course were taught
in Lyon, Moscow, Stockholm and Stony Brook. I was also lucky to learn
from many people: V. Arnold, E. Balkovsky, E. Bodenschatz, G. Boffetta,
D. Budker, A. Celani, M. Chertkov, B. Chirikov, G. Eyink, U. Frisch,
K. Gawedzki, V. Geshkenbein, M. Isichenko, L. Kadanoff, K. Khanin,
B. Khesin, D. Khmelnitskii, I. Kolokolov, G. Kotkin, R. Kraichnan,
E. Kuznetsov, A. Larkin, V. Lebedev, L. Levitov, B. Lugovtsov, S. Lukaschuk,
V. L’vov, K. Moffatt, A. Newell, A. Polyakov, I. Procaccia, A. Pumir,
A. Rubenchik, D. Ryutov, V. Serbo, A. Shafarenko, M. Shats, B. Shraiman,
A. Shytov, E. Siggia, Ya. Sinai, M. Spektor, K. Sreenivasan, V. Steinberg,
K. Turitsyn, S. Turitsyn, G. Vekshtein, M. Vergassola, P. Wiegmann,
V. Zakharov, A. Zamolodchikov and Ya. Zeldovich. Special thanks to Itzhak
Fouxon, Marija Vucelja and Anna Frishman, who were instructors in problem-
solving sessions and helped with writing solutions for some of the exercises. I
am grateful to the readers of the first English edition and the Russian edition
for pointing out misprints, errors and unclear places, which I did my best
to correct. Remaining errors, both of omission and of commission, are my
responsibility alone. This book is dedicated to my family.
 Prologue

The water’s language was a wondrous one, some narrative

on a recurrent subject ...
(A. Tarkovsky, translated by A. Shafarenko)
There are two protagonists in this story: inertia and friction. One meets
them first in the mechanics of particles and solids where their interplay is
not very complicated: Inertia tries to keep the motion while friction tries to
stop it. Going from a finite to an infinite number of degrees of freedom is
always a game-changer. We will see in this book how an infinitesimal viscous
friction makes fluid motion infinitely more complicated than inertia alone
ever could. Without friction, most incompressible flows would stay potential,
i.e. essentially trivial. At solid surfaces, friction produces vorticity, which is
carried away by inertia and changes the flow in the bulk. Instabilities then bring
about turbulence, and statistics emerges from dynamics. Vorticity penetrating
the bulk makes life interesting in ideal fluids though in a way different from
superfluids and superconductors.
On the other hand, compressibility makes even potential flows non-trivial
as it allows inertia to develop a finite-time singularity (shock), which friction
manages to stop. It is only in a wave motion that inertia is able to have an
interesting life in the absence of friction, when it is instead partnered with
medium anisotropy or inhomogeneity, which cause the dispersion of waves.
The soliton is a happy child of that partnership. Yet even there, a modulational
instability can bring a finite-time singularity in the form of self-focusing or
collapse. At the end, I discuss how inertia, friction and dispersion may act
together.
On a formal level, inertia of a continuous medium is described by a non-
linear term in the equation of motion. Friction and dispersion are described
by linear terms, which, however, have the highest spatial derivatives so that

xii
 Prologue xiii

the limit of zero friction and zero dispersion is singular. Friction is not only
singular but also a symmetry-breaking perturbation, which leads to an anomaly
when the effect of symmetry breaking remains finite even in the limit of
vanishing viscosity.
The first chapter introduces basic notions and describes stationary flows,
inviscid and viscous. Time starts to run in the second chapter, which discusses
instabilities, turbulence and sound. The third chapter is devoted to dispersive
waves. It progresses from linear to nonlinear waves, solitons, collapses and
wave turbulence. The epilogue gives a guide to further reading and briefly
describes present-day activities in fluid mechanics. Detailed solutions of the
exercises are given.
 1
Basic notions and steady flows

In this chapter, we define the subject, derive the equations of motion and
describe their fundamental symmetries. We start from hydrostatics where all
forces are normal. We then try to consider flows this way as well, neglecting
friction. This allows us to understand some features of inertia, most impor-
tantly induced mass, but the overall result is a failure to describe a fluid flow
past a body. We are then forced to introduce friction and learn how it interacts
with inertia, producing real flows. We briefly consider an Aristotelean world
where friction dominates. In an opposite limit, we discover that the world with
a little friction is very much different from the world with no friction at all.

1.1 Definitions and basic equations

Here we define the notions of fluids and their continuous motion. These
definitions are induced by empirically established facts rather than deduced
from a set of axioms.

1.1.1 Definitions
We deal with continuous media where matter may be treated as homogeneous
in structure down to the smallest portions. The term fluid embraces both
liquids and gases and relates to the fact that even though any fluid may resist
deformations, that resistance cannot prevent deformation from happening.
This is because the resisting force vanishes with the rate of deformation.
With patience, anything can be deformed. Therefore, whether one treats the
matter as a fluid or a solid depends on the time available for observation.
As the prophetess Deborah sang, “The mountains flowed before the Lord”

1
2 1 Basic notions and steady flows

(Judges 5:5). The ratio of the relaxation time to the observation time is called
the Deborah number.1 The smaller the number the more fluid the material.
A fluid can be in mechanical equilibrium only if all the mutual forces
between two adjacent parts are normal to the common surface. That experi-
mental observation is the basis of hydrostatics. If one applies a force parallel
(tangential) to the common surface then the fluid layer on one side of the
surface starts sliding over the layer on the other side. Such sliding motion
will lead to a friction between layers. For example, if you cease to stir tea
in a glass it could come to rest only because of such tangential forces, i.e.
friction. Indeed, if the mutual action between the portions on the same radius
was wholly normal, i.e. radial, then the conservation of angular momentum
about the rotation axis would cause the fluid to rotate forever.
Since tangential forces are absent at rest or for a uniform flow, it is natural
to consider first the flows where such forces are small and can be neglected.
Therefore, a natural first step out of hydrostatics into hydrodynamics is to
restrict ourselves to purely normal forces, assuming small velocity gradients
(whether such a step makes sense at all and how long such approximation
may last remains to be seen). Moreover, the intensity of a normal force
per unit area does not depend on the direction in a fluid (Pascal’s law, see
Exercise 1.1). We thus characterize the internal force (or stress) in a fluid
by a single scalar function p(r,t) called pressure, which is the force per
unit area. From the viewpoint of the internal state of the matter, pressure is
a macroscopic (thermodynamic) variable. Microscopically, we assume every
portion of the fluid to be in thermal equilibrium. In this case, the internal state
of the fluid is described completely by two variables, so one needs a second
thermodynamical quantity. We shall usually use the density ρ (r,t), in addition
to the pressure.
What analytic properties of the velocity field v(r,t) do we need to presume?
We suppose the velocity to be finite and a continuous function of r. In addition,
we suppose the first spatial derivatives to be everywhere finite. That makes
the motion continuous, i.e. trajectories of the fluid particles do not cross. The
equation for the distance δr between two close fluid particles is dδr/dt = δv so,
mathematically speaking, the finiteness of ∇v is the Lipschitz condition for this
equation to have a unique solution (a simple example of nonunique solutions
for non-Lipschitz equation is dx/dt = |x|1−α with two solutions, x(t) = (α t)1/α
and x(t)=0, starting from zero for α >0). For a continuous motion, any surface
moving with the fluid completely separates matter on the two sides of it. We
don’t yet know when exactly the continuity assumption is consistent with
the equations of the fluid motion. Whether velocity derivatives may turn into
infinity after a finite time is a subject of active research for an incompressible
 1.1 Definitions and basic equations 3

viscous fluid (and a subject of a one-million-dollar Clay prize). We shall see

that a compressible inviscid flow generally develops discontinuities, called
shocks.

1.1.2 Equations of motion for an ideal fluid

The Euler equation. The force acting on any fluid volume is equal to the

pressure integral over the surface: − p df. The surface area element df is a
vector directed as outward normal:
df


Let us transform the surface integral into the volume one: − p df =

− ∇p dV . The force acting on a unit volume is thus −∇p. That would
be wrong, however, to assume that this force is the time derivative of the
momentum ρ v of this volume. To write the second law of Newton, we need
to single out a fixed body of fluid. An infinitesimal such body is called fluid
particle and it always contains the same mass, which we assume unity. Then
the force per unit mass, ∇p/ρ , must be equal to the acceleration dv/dt:
dv ∇p
=− .
dt ρ
The acceleration dv/dt is not the rate of change of the fluid velocity at a fixed
point in space but the rate of change of the velocity of a given fluid particle as
it moves about in space. One uses the chain rule of differentiation to express
this (substantial or material) derivative in terms of quantities referring to points
fixed in space. During the time dt the fluid particle changes its velocity by dv
(which is composed of two parts, temporal and spatial):
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
dv = dt + (dr · ∇)v = dt + dx + dy + dz . (1.1)
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
It is the change in the fixed point plus the difference at two points dr apart,
where dr = vdt is the distance moved by the fluid particle during dt due to
inertia. Dividing (1.1) by dt we obtain the substantial derivative as a local
derivative plus a convective derivative:
dv ∂ v
= + (v · ∇)v .
dt ∂t
We see that even when the flow is steady, ∂ v/∂ t =0, the acceleration is nonzero
as long as (v · ∇)v = 0, that is if the velocity field changes in space along itself.
4 1 Basic notions and steady flows

v
p p

Figure 1.1 The radial pressure gradient is normal to circular surfaces and cannot
change the moment of momentum of the fluid inside or outside the surface; it
changes the direction of velocity v but not its modulus.

Any function F(r(t),t), like fluid temperature, varies for a moving particle in
the same way, according to the chain rule of differentiation:
dF ∂ F
= + (v · ∇)F .
dt ∂t
Writing now the second law of Newton for a unit mass of a fluid, we come
to the equation derived by Euler (Berlin 1757; Petersburg 1759):
∂v ∇p
+ (v · ∇)v = − . (1.2)
∂t ρ
Before Euler, the acceleration of a fluid had been considered as due to the
difference of the pressure exerted by the enclosing walls. Euler introduced
the pressure field inside the fluid. For example, for the steadily rotating fluid
shown in Figure 1.1, the acceleration vector (v · ∇)v has a nonzero radial
component v 2 /r. The radial acceleration times the density gives the radial
pressure gradient: dp/dr = ρ v 2 /r.
We can also add an external body force per unit mass (for gravity f = g):
∂v ∇p
+ (v · ∇)v = − + f. (1.3)
∂t ρ
The term (v · ∇)v describes inertia and makes (1.3) nonlinear.

Continuity equation. This expresses conservation of mass. If Q is the volume

of a moving element then dρ Q/dt = 0, that is
dρ dQ
Q +ρ = 0. (1.4)
dt dt
The volume change can be expressed via v(r,t).
 1.1 Definitions and basic equations 5

δy Q

A δx B

The horizontal velocity of the point B relative to the point A is δx∂ vx /∂ x.

After the time interval dt, the length of the edge AB is δx(1 + dt ∂ vx /∂ x).
Overall, after dt, one has the volume change
 
∂ vx ∂ vy ∂ vz dQ
dQ = dtδxδyδz + + = dt Q div v = dt .
∂x ∂y ∂z dt
Substituting that into (1.4) and canceling (arbitrary) Q we obtain the continuity
equation
dρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
+ ρ div v = + (v · ∇)ρ + ρ div v = + div(ρ v) = 0 . (1.5)
dt ∂t ∂t
The last equation is almost obvious since for any fixed volume of space the
 
decrease of the total mass inside, − (∂ ρ /∂ t) dV , is equal to the flux ρ v·df=

div(ρ v)dV .

Entropy equation. We now have four equations (1.3, 1.5) for five quan-
tities p, ρ , vx , vy , vz , so we need one extra equation. In deriving (1.3, 1.5)
we have taken no account of energy dissipation, thus neglecting internal
friction (viscosity) and heat exchange. A fluid without viscosity and thermal
conductivity is called ideal. The motion of an ideal fluid is adiabatic, that is
the entropy of any fluid particle remains constant: ds/dt = 0, where s is the
entropy per unit mass. We can turn this equation into a continuity equation for
the entropy density in space
∂ (ρ s)
+ div(ρ sv) = 0 . (1.6)
∂t
Since entropy is a function of pressure and density then (1.6) is the needed
extra relation between velocity, pressure and density. Different media differ by
the form of the function s(P, ρ ).

Boundary conditions. At the boundaries of the fluid, the continuity equation

(1.5) is replaced by the boundary conditions:
(1) On a fixed boundary, vn = 0;
(2) On a moving boundary between two immiscible fluids, p1 = p2 and
vn1 = vn2 .
6 1 Basic notions and steady flows

These are particular cases of the general surface condition. Let F(r,t) = 0 be
the equation of the bounding surface. An absence of any fluid flow across the
surface requires
dF ∂ F
= + (v · ∇)F = 0 ,
dt ∂t
which means, as we now know, the zero rate of F variation for a fluid particle.
For a stationary boundary, ∂ F/∂ t = 0 and v ⊥ ∇F ⇒ vn = 0.

1.1.3 Hydrostatics
A necessary and sufficient condition for fluid to be in a mechanical equilibrium
follows from (1.3):

∇p = ρ f . (1.7)

Not every distribution of ρ (r) could be in equilibrium since ρ (r)f(r) is not

necessarily a gradient. If the force is potential, f = −∇φ , then taking the curl
of (1.7) we get
∇ρ × ∇φ = 0.

This means that the gradients of ρ and φ are parallel and their level surfaces
coincide in equilibrium. The best-known example is gravity with φ = gz and
∂ p/∂ z = −ρ g. For an incompressible fluid, it gives
p(z) = p(0) − ρ gz.

For an ideal gas under a homogeneous temperature, which has p = ρ T /m,

one gets
dp pgm
=− ⇒ p(z) = p(0) exp(−mgz/T ).
dz T
For air at 0 ◦ C, T /mg  8 km. The Earth’s atmosphere is described by neither
a linear nor an exponential law because of an inhomogeneous temperature
(Figure 1.2). Assuming a linear temperature decay, T (z) = T0 − α z, one obtains
a better approximation:
dp pmg
= −ρ g = − ,
dz T0 − α z
p(z) = p(0)(1 − α z/T0 )mg/α ,

which can be used not far from the surface with α  6.5◦ C km−1 .
Under gravity, density depends only on the distance from the Earth center
(or locally on the vertical coordinate z) in a mechanical equilibrium. According
 1.1 Definitions and basic equations 7

Isothermal
(exponential)
Incompressible
(linear) Real atmosphere z

Figure 1.2 Pressure–height dependence for an incompressible fluid (broken line),

isothermal gas (dotted line) and a real atmosphere (solid line).

to dp/dz = −ρ g, the pressure also depends only on z. Pressure and density

determine temperature, which must then also be independent of the horizontal
coordinates. Different temperatures at the same height, in particular nonuni-
form temperature of the Earth surface, necessarily produce fluid motion, which
is why winds blow in the atmosphere and currents flow in the ocean. Another
source of atmospheric flows is thermal convection due to a negative vertical
temperature gradient. Let us derive the stability criterion for a fluid with a
vertical profile T (z). If a fluid element is shifted up adiabatically from z by
dz, it keeps its entropy s(z) but acquires the pressure p = p(z + dz) so its new
density is ρ (s, p ). For stability, this density must exceed the density of the
displaced air at the height z + dz, which has the same pressure but different
entropy s = s(z + dz). The condition for stability of the stratification is as
follows:
 
∂ρ ds
ρ (p , s) > ρ (p , s ) ⇒ <0 .
∂ s p dz
Entropy usually increases under expansion, (∂ ρ /∂ s) p < 0, and for stability we
must require ds/dz > 0. Entropy depends on p, T which both decay with the
height. Entropy decreases with cooling yet increases when P decreases. To see
which effect wins we compute:
     
ds ∂s dT ∂s dp c p dT ∂V g
= + = + > 0. (1.8)
dz ∂ T p dz ∂ p T dz T dz ∂T p V
Here we used specific volume V = 1/ρ . For an ideal gas the coefficient of the
thermal expansion gives (∂ V /∂ T ) p =V /T and we end up with
g dT
>− . (1.9)
cp dz
8 1 Basic notions and steady flows

Indeed, stability requires that the gain in potential energy gdz must exceed
the decrease in thermal energy c p dT . For the Earth’s atmosphere, c p ∼
103 J/ kg−1 K−1 and the convection threshold is 10◦ C km−1 . The average
gradient is 6.5◦ C km−1 , that is, the entropy decreases with the height and
the atmosphere is globally stable. However, local gradients vary very much
depending on ground albedo, evaporation, etc., so that the atmosphere is often
locally unstable with respect to thermal convection. The human body always
excites convection in room-temperature air.2
Temperature decays with height only in the troposphere that is until about
−50◦ C at 10–12 km, it is then constant up to about 35 km so that the pressure
decays exponentially, eventually it grows in the stratosphere until about 0◦ C
at 50 km. Looking down from the plane flying above 10 km one often sees flat
cloud top, particularly so-called anvil clouds, which is exactly where unstable
air stratification below turns into stable above.
The convection stability argument applied to an incompressible fluid rotat-
ing with the angular velocity Ω(r) gives the Rayleigh’s stability criterion,
d(r2 Ω)2 /dr > 0, which states that the angular momentum of the fluid L = r2 |Ω|
must increase with the distance r from the rotation axis.3 Indeed, if a fluid
element is shifted from r to r it keeps its angular momentum L(r), so that the
local pressure gradient dp/dr = ρ r Ω2 (r ) must overcome the centrifugal force
ρ r (L2 r4 /r4 ).

1.1.4 Isentropic motion

The simplest motion corresponds to constant s and allows for a substantial
simplification of the Euler equation. Indeed, it would be convenient to repre-
sent ∇p/ρ as a gradient of some function. For this end, we need a function
that depends on p, s, so that at s = const. its differential is expressed solely
via dp. There exists the thermodynamic potential called enthalpy, defined
as W = E + pV per unit mass (E is the internal energy of the fluid). For
our purposes, it is enough to remember from thermodynamics the single
relation dE = T ds − pdV so that dW = T ds + V dp (one can also show that
W = ∂ (E ρ )/∂ ρ ). Since s = const. for an isentropic motion and V = ρ −1 for a
unit mass, dW = dp/ρ and, without body forces one has
∂v
+ (v · ∇)v = −∇W. (1.10)
∂t
Such a gradient form will be used extensively for obtaining conservation laws,
integral relations, etc. For example, we can use the vector identity A × (∇ ×
B) = A · (∇B) − (A · ∇)B) to represent
 1.1 Definitions and basic equations 9

(v · ∇)v = ∇v 2 /2 − v × (∇ × v) ,

and get
∂v
= v × (∇ × v) − ∇(W + v 2 /2). (1.11)
∂t
The first term on the right-hand side is perpendicular to the velocity. To
project (1.11) along the velocity and get rid of this term, we define a streamline
as a line whose tangent is everywhere parallel to the instantaneous velocity.
The streamlines are then determined by the relations
dx dy dz
= = .
vx vy vz
Note that for time-dependent flows streamlines are different from particle
trajectories: tangents to streamlines give velocities at a given time while
tangents to trajectories give velocities at subsequent times. One records
streamlines experimentally by seeding fluids with light-scattering particles;
each particle produces a short trace on a short-exposure photograph, and the
length and orientation of the trace indicates the magnitude and direction of
the velocity. Streamlines can intersect only at a point of zero velocity called
the stagnation point.
Let us now consider a steady flow, assuming ∂ v/∂ t = 0, and take the
component of (1.11) along the velocity at a point:
∂
(W + v 2 /2) = 0 . (1.12)
∂l
We see that W +v 2 /2 = E + p/ρ +v 2 /2 is constant along any given streamline,
but may be different for different streamlines (Bernoulli 1738). Bernoulli
theorem, of course, is a particular case of energy conservation. The change
of the total energy density is not zero along the streamline but is equal to
P2 /ρ2 − P1 /ρ1 which is the work done. This is the reason W rather E enters
the conservation law, as also discussed after (1.18). Alternatively, one may say
that W is a potential energy of a fluid particle, see (1.41) below. In a gravity
field,

W + gz + v 2 /2 = const. (1.13)

Without much exaggeration, one can say that most fluid-mechanics estimates
use (1.12) or (1.13). Let us consider several applications of this useful relation.
Imagine that our spaceship suffered a meteorite attack that left holes in the
walls of the cabin and the tank with liquid fuel. We need to estimate how
fast we lose air from the cabin and fuel from the tank. Since there is vacuum
10 1 Basic notions and steady flows

outside, we can neglect thermal exchange and consider both flows isentropic.
Liquid could be treated as incompressible, its internal energy E is then constant
without any external force. Bernoulli theorem then gives the limiting velocity
with which such a liquid escapes from a large reservoir into vacuum:

v = 2p0 /ρ .
water (ρ = 103 kg m−3 ) at atmospheric pressure (p0 = 105 N m−2 ) one gets
For √
v = 200 ≈ 14 m s−1 .
For a gas, pressure drop must be accompanied by density change. The
adiabatic law, p/p0 = (ρ /ρ0 )γ , gives the enthalpy as:

dp γp
W= = .
ρ (γ − 1)ρ
The limiting velocity for the escape into vacuum can again be found from
Bernoulli theorem:

γ p0 v2 2γ p0
= ⇒ v= ,
(γ − 1)ρ 2 (γ − 1)ρ

The velocity is γ /(γ − 1) times larger than for an incompressible fluid which
corresponds to the limit γ 1. The gas flows faster because the internal energy
of the gas decreases as it flows, thus increasing the kinetic energy. We conclude
that a meteorite-damaged spaceship loses the air from the cabin faster than the
liquid fuel from the tank. We shall see later that (∂ P/∂ ρ )s = γ P/ρ is the sound
velocity squared, c2 , so that v = c 2/(γ − 1). For an ideal gas with n internal
degrees of freedom, W = E + p/ρ = nT /2m + T /m so that γ = (2 + n)/n. For
bi-atomic molecules n = 5 (3 translations and 2 rotations) at not very high
temperature, when vibrations are not excited.
Another frequent occurrence is efflux from a small orifice under the action
of gravity. Supposing the external pressure to be the same at the horizontal
surface and at the orifice, we apply the Bernoulli relation to the streamline
which originates at the upper surface with almost zero velocity and exits with
√
velocity v = 2gh (Torricelli 1643). The Torricelli formula is not of much use
practically to calculate the rate of discharge, which in reality is not equal to
√
the orifice area times 2gh, the fact known to wine merchants long before
physicists. Indeed, streamlines converge from all sides toward the orifice so
that the jet continues to converge for a while after coming out (Figure 1.3).
Moreover, the converging motion makes the pressure in the interior of the jet
somewhat greater than that at the surface (as is clear from the curvature of
√
streamlines) so that the velocity in the interior is somewhat less than 2gh.
The experiment shows that contraction ceases and the jet becomes cylindrical
 1.1 Definitions and basic equations 11

Figure 1.3 Streamlines converge coming out of the orifice.

A .v B .
Figure 1.4 Pitot tube, which determines the velocity v at the point A by measuring
the height h.

at a short distance beyond the orifice. This point is called “vena contracta”
and the ratio of the jet area there to the orifice area is called the coefficient of
√
contraction. The estimate for the discharge rate is 2gh times the orifice area
times the coefficient of contraction. For a round hole in a thin wall, the coeffi-
cient of contraction is experimentally found to be 0.62. Exercise 1.3 presents a
particular case where the coefficient of contraction can be found exactly.
The Bernoulli relation is also used in different devices that measure the
flow velocity. Probably, the simplest such device is the Pitot tube shown in
Figure 1.4. It is open at both ends with the horizontal arm facing upstream.
Since the liquid does not move inside the tube then the velocity is zero at the
point labeled B. On the one hand, the pressure difference at two points on the
same streamline can be expressed via the velocity at A: PB − PA = ρ v 2 /2. On
the other hand, it is expressed via the height h by which liquid rises above the
surface in the vertical arm of the tube: PB − PA = ρ gh. That gives v 2 = 2gh.
One may wonder why the Earth atmosphere is not isentropic as remarked in
the previous section. Rising water vapour condenses and releases latent heat,
making the mean rate of temperature decrease lower than adiabatic.
12 1 Basic notions and steady flows

1.2 Conservation laws and potential flows

In this section we deduce the conservation laws and their straightforward
consequences from the equations of motion.

Symmetries and conservation laws. The equations of ideal hydrodynamics

(1.3, 1.5, 1.6) express, respectively, the conservation laws of the momentum,
mass and entropy. They are invariant with respect to space translations (which
brings momentum conservation), and time translations (which brings energy
conservation, described in the next subsection). The equations are time-
reversible that is invariant with respect to the transformation t →−t and v→−v
– we shall see later how the breakdown of this symmetry makes real flows so
interesting. An additional symmetry is the Galilean invariance with respect
to passing to a reference frame moving with the speed V: v → v + V and
r → r − Vt.4 The equations of ideal hydrodynamics are also invariant with
respect to re-scaling r → r/a, t → t/b, v → v b/a.

Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions. We thus encountered two alternative

types of description. The equations (1.3, 1.6) use the coordinate system fixed
in space, like field theories describing electromagnetism or gravity. This type
of description is called Eulerian in fluid mechanics. Another approach is
called Lagrangian; it is a generalization of the approach taken in particle
mechanics. In this method one follows fluid particles 5 and treats their current
coordinates, r(R,t), as functions of time and their initial positions R = r(R, 0).
The substantial derivative is thus the Lagrangian derivative since it sticks to
a given fluid particle, that is keeps R constant: d/dt = (∂ /∂ t)R . Conservation
laws written for a unit-mass quantity A have a Lagrangian form:
dA ∂A
= + (v∇)A = 0 .
dt ∂t
Every Lagrangian conservation law together with mass conservation generates
an Eulerian conservation law for a unit-volume quantity ρ A :
∂ (ρ A ) ∂ρ ∂A
+ div(ρ A v) = A + div(ρ v) + ρ + (v∇)A = 0.
∂t ∂t ∂t
On the contrary, if the Eulerian conservation law has the form
∂ (ρ B)
+ div(F) = 0 (1.14)
∂t
and the flux is not equal to the density times velocity, F = ρ Bv, then the
respective Lagrangian conservation law does not exist. That means that fluid
 1.2 Conservation laws and potential flows 13

particles can exchange B conserving the total space integral – we shall see that
the conservation laws of energy and momentum have that form.

1.2.1 Energy and momentum fluxes

Since we expect fluid particles to exchange energy and momentum then
the respective fluxes must be different from “velocity times density of
energy/momentum” like in (1.14). What is the difference?
The Euler equation is itself a momentum-conservation equation and must
have the form of a continuity equation written for the momentum density. The
momentum of the unit volume is the vector ρ v whose every component is
conserved so it should satisfy the equation of the form
∂ ρ vi ∂ Πik
+ =0 .
∂t ∂ xk
Let us find the momentum flux Πik – the flux of the ith component of the
momentum across the surface with the normal along k. Substitute the mass
continuity equation ∂ ρ /∂ t = −∂ (ρ vk )/∂ xk and the Euler equation ∂ vi /∂ t =
−vk ∂ vi /∂ xk − ρ −1 ∂ p/∂ xi into
∂ ρ vi ∂ vi ∂ρ ∂p ∂
=ρ + vi =− − ρ vi vk ,
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂ xi ∂ xk
that is

Πik = pδik + ρ vi vk . (1.15)

Plainly speaking, along v there is only the flux of parallel momentum p +

ρ v 2 while perpendicular to v the momentum component is zero at the given
point and the flux is p. For example, if we direct the x-axis along the velocity
at a given point then Πxx = p + v 2 , Πyy = Πzz = p and all the off-diagonal
components are zero.
Let us now derive the equation that expresses the conservation law of energy.
The energy density (per unit volume) in the flow is ρ (E +v 2 /2). For isentropic
flows, one can use ∂ ρ E/∂ ρ = E + ρ∂ E/∂ ρ = E − ρ −1 ∂ E/∂ V = E +P/ρ =W
and calculate the time derivative
 
∂ ρ v2 ∂ρ ∂v
ρE + = W + v 2 /2 + ρv · = −div [ρ v(W + v 2 /2)].
∂t 2 ∂t ∂t
Since the right-hand side is a total derivative, the integral of the energy density
over the whole space is conserved. The same Eulerian conservation law in the
form of a continuity equation can be obtained in a general (non-isentropic)
14 1 Basic notions and steady flows

case as well. It is straightforward to calculate the time derivative of the kinetic

energy:
∂ ρ v2 v2
= − div ρ v − v · ∇p − ρ v · (v∇)v
∂t 2 2
v2
= − div ρ v − v(ρ ∇W − ρ T ∇s) − ρ v · ∇v 2 /2.
2
= −div ρ vv 2 /2 − v(ρ ∇W − ρ T ∇s). (1.16)

For calculating ∂ (ρ E)/∂ t we use dE = T ds − pdV = T ds + pρ −2 dρ so that

d(ρ E) = Edρ + ρ dE =W dρ + ρ T ds and
∂ (ρ E) ∂ρ ∂s
=W + ρT = −W div ρ v − ρ T v · ∇s
∂t ∂t ∂t
= −div ρ vW + v(ρ ∇W − ρ T ∇s). (1.17)

The right sides of (1.16, 1.17) contain divergences of the respective fluxes
plus the exchange term (the last bracket) coming with opposite signs. Adding
kinetic and potential energies together, one gets the exchange terms canceled:
 
∂ ρ v2
ρE + = −div [ρ v(W + v 2 /2)]. (1.18)
∂t 2
As usual, the rhs is the divergence of the flux, indeed:
  
∂ ρ v2
ρE + dV = − ρ (W + v 2 /2)v · df.
∂t 2
As expected, the energy flux,

ρ v(W + v 2 /2) = ρ v(E + v 2 /2) + pv,

is not equal to the energy density times v but contains an extra pressure term
that describes the work done by pressure forces on the fluid, similarly to the
momentum flux. In other terms, any unit mass of the fluid carries an amount
of energy W + v 2 /2 rather than E + v 2 /2. That means, in particular, that for
energy there is no (Lagrangian) conservation law for unit mass d(·)/dt = 0
that is valid for passively transported quantities such as entropy. This is natural
because different fluid elements exchange energy by doing work.

1.2.2 Kinematics
We consider here the kinematics of a small fluid element. In particular, it
will help us to appreciate the new conservation law, described in the next
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