Networking Fundamentals – Detailed Explanations

4. Network Devices (Router, Switch, Hub, Modem, Access Point)

Devices that enable connectivity:

 Hub: Layer 1 device (physical). Broadcasts incoming signals to all ports. Cheap and outdated.
Causes collisions on shared medium.

 Switch: Layer 2 device (data link). Forwards frames based on MAC addresses to the correct
port. Reduces collisions and increases efficiency. Managed switches offer VLANs and QoS.

 Router: Layer 3 device (network). Routes packets between different IP networks using routing
tables and protocols (OSPF, BGP). Connects LANs to WANs or the Internet. Handles NAT and
firewall functions in many home routers.

 Modem: Modulator–demodulator. Converts analog signals from ISP medium (DSL, cable, fiber
ONT) to digital signals for your network. In many home setups, an ISP supplies a combined
modem/router.

 Access Point (AP): Wireless bridge that connects Wi-Fi clients to a wired network. Can be
standalone or built into routers. Managed APs support SSIDs, security (WPA2/WPA3), and
roaming.

5. IP Addressing (IPv4, IPv6, Static, Dynamic)

IP addressing uniquely identifies devices at the network layer.

 IPv4: 32-bit addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.10). Approximately 4.3 billion addresses; exhaustion led
to NAT and IPv6. Represented dotted decimal.

 IPv6: 128-bit addresses (e.g., 2001:0db8::1). Huge address space, simplified header, built-in
features (auto-configuration, neighbor discovery). Represented in hex colon notation.

Static vs Dynamic:

 Static IP: Manually assigned, stays constant. Used for servers, network devices, and when
consistent addressing is required. Pros: predictability, easier port forwarding. Cons: manual
management, possible conflicts if misconfigured.

 Dynamic IP: Assigned by DHCP server. Easier for large networks; clients get addresses
automatically. Good for desktops, mobiles.
6. MAC Address

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a hardware identifier assigned to a network

interface card (NIC). It’s a 48-bit (often written as 12 hex digits like 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E) unique
identifier used at Layer 2 to deliver frames on a LAN.

7. Subnetting

Subnetting divides a large network into smaller subnetworks (subnets) to improve performance,
security, and address management.

8. Network Protocols (TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, DNS, etc.)

Protocol: a set of rules governing communication between devices.

Core stacks and common protocols:

 TCP/IP stack (application, transport, internet, link):

o IP: routing packets (IPv4/IPv6).

o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): connection-oriented, reliable, ordered delivery (e.g.,

web pages, email).

o UDP (User Datagram Protocol): connectionless, low overhead (e.g., DNS queries, streaming).

 HTTP/HTTPS (Application layer): Protocol for web traffic; HTTPS adds TLS for encryption.

 FTP/SFTP: File transfer protocols; SFTP/FTPS secure transfer.

 DNS: Resolves domain names to IPs (and other records). Critical for web addressing.

 DHCP: Assigns IP configuration to hosts automatically.

 SMTP/IMAP/POP3: Email delivery and retrieval protocols.

 SNMP: Network management protocol for monitoring devices.

12. DNS (Domain Name System)

DNS translates human-friendly names (example.com) to IP addresses. It’s a distributed,

hierarchical database.

13. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

 DHCP automates IP configuration. A DHCP server assigns IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, DNS servers to hosts.

14. NAT (Network Address Translation)

NAT allows private IP addresses (RFC1918) to access the public Internet by translating private
addresses to a public IP. Common in routers.

Types:

 Static NAT: One-to-one mapping (useful for exposing a server).

 Dynamic NAT: Pools of public addresses translated from private addresses.

 PAT (Port Address Translation)/NAT overload: Many private IPs share one public IP using
different port numbers (common in home routers).

15. Firewall and Network Security Basics

Firewalls control traffic between networks based on security rules. They can filter by IP, port,
protocol, application, or content.

17. Bandwidth and Latency

 Bandwidth: The maximum data transfer rate of a network link (bits per second). Think of it as
highway width — how many cars (bits) can pass at once.

 Latency: The time it takes for a packet to travel from source to destination (milliseconds).
Think of it as travel time.

18. Client-Server vs. Peer-to-Peer Networks

 Client-Server: Central server provides services (web, database). Clients request resources.
Centralized control simplifies management and security. Example: web application with REST
API and central database.

 Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Each node can act as client and server. Resources are shared directly
among peers. Example: file sharing (BitTorrent), blockchain nodes.

19 ARP in networking stands for Address Resolution Protocol — it’s the “translator” between IP
addresses and MAC addresses inside a local network.
20 DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol — it’s the network service that
automatically gives devices an IP address and other network settings so they can
communicate without manual configuration.
21 DoS stands for Denial of Service — it’s a type of cyberattack where the goal is to make a
network service unavailable by overwhelming it with traffic or requests.
22 A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is like a secure, private tunnel between your device and
the internet. When you use the internet without a VPN, your data travels openly — like
postcards anyone in the mailroom can read. 📬
When you use a VPN, your data is encrypted and sent through a special tunnel so outsiders
(hackers, ISPs, or even public Wi-Fi snoopers) can’t see it.
23 Subnetting = dividing a large network into smaller parts, each with its own addresses.
It helps save IP addresses, improve security, and reduce network traffic.
24 A subnet mask is like a filter that tells your computer which part of an IP address is the
network and which part is the host.
25 Supernetting is the opposite of subnetting — instead of breaking a network into smaller
pieces, you combine multiple smaller networks into a bigger one.

Network

1.Osi Layer

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to

understand how different networking protocols interact in a computer network.

7 Layers of the OSI Model (Top to Bottom)

Layer Name Function (Simple Explanation)

7 Application Provides services directly to user applications (e.g., browsers)
6 Presentation Translates data formats (e.g., encryption, compression)
5 Session Manages sessions and connections between apps
4 Transport Ensures reliable data transfer (e.g., TCP/UDP, error recovery)
3 Network Finds the best path for data (e.g., IP addressing, routing)
2 Data Link Organizes data into frames; handles MAC addressing
1 Physical Transfers raw bits over cables or wireless (e.g., cables, Wi-Fi)

1. Physical Layer

 Function: Transmits raw bits (0s and 1s) over a physical medium.
 Examples: Cables, switches, voltage levels, signals.

2. Data Link Layer

  Function: Creates frames from raw bits, does error checking and MAC
addressing.
 Sub-layers: LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC (Media Access Control).
 Examples: Ethernet, MAC address, switches.

3. Network Layer

 Function: Routes data from source to destination using IP addresses.

 Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), routers.

4. Transport Layer

 Function: Ensures reliable or fast delivery of data, manages segmentation.

 Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (fast, less reliable).

5. Session Layer

 Function: Manages communication sessions (start, maintain, end).

 Examples: Session IDs, RPC (Remote Procedure Calls).

6. Presentation Layer

 Function: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data.

 Examples: SSL/TLS encryption, JPEG, MPEG, ASCII.

7. Application Layer

 Function: Provides user-facing network services and interfaces.

 Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, browsers, email clients.

Feature TCP (Transmission Control UDP (User Datagram

Protocol) Protocol)
Connection Connection-oriented (requires Connectionless (no handshake)
handshake)
Reliability Reliable – ensures all data reaches Unreliable – no guarantee of
delivery
 Ordering Delivers data in correct order May deliver data out of order
Error Yes, with acknowledgment and Yes, but no retransmission
Checking retransmit
Speed Slower due to overhead Faster, lightweight
Use Cases File transfer, emails, web browsing Live streaming, gaming, VoIP,
DNS

TCP/IP MODEL

Layer Layer Name Corresponding OSI Layer(s) Key Protocols/Functions

4 Application Application, Presentation, Session HTTP, FTP, SMTP
3 Transport Transport TCP, UDP
2 Internet Network IP, ICMP, ARP
Network Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MAC, Frames,
1 Data Link + Physical
Access Bits

Types of Network Topologies

Topology Description Pros Cons

1. Bus All devices connected to a Easy to set up, cheap Cable failure affects
single backbone cable. all devices
2. Star All devices connected to a Easy to manage, Hub failure = full
central hub or switch. isolate problems network down
3. Ring Devices connected in a Predictable One break affects
circular loop. performance the whole ring
4. Mesh Every device connected to High reliability Expensive, complex
every other device.
5. Tree Combination of star and bus Scalable Hard to maintain
topologies (hierarchical).
6 Hybrid Mix of two or more topologies Flexible, scalable Complex to design
(e.g., star + ring)

1. Computer Hardware Basics

Definition:
Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that you can touch
and see. It works together with software to perform computing tasks.

Examples of hardware components:

 Input devices: Keyboard, mouse, scanner (allow users to input data).

 Output devices: Monitor, printer, speakers (display or present processed

data).

 Processing unit: CPU (Central Processing Unit) — the brain of the computer.

 Storage devices: Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive (SSD), Optical
discs.

 Peripheral devices: External drives, webcams, USB devices.

Key points:

1. Hardware cannot function without software instructions.

2. Modern systems integrate hardware components for higher speed and

efficiency.

3. Maintenance and upgrades of hardware directly affect performance.

Interview Tip: Be ready to explain the difference between hardware and software, and give
real-life examples.

2. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Definition:
The CPU is the main processor that carries out instructions from software through the fetch–
decode–execute cycle.

Main components:

1. Control Unit (CU): Directs data flow between CPU, memory, and devices.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

3. Registers: Small, fast memory locations for temporary data storage.

 4. Cache memory: Speeds up data access by storing frequently used
instructions.

Key points:

 Measured in GHz (clock speed) and number of cores (parallel processing

ability).

 A multi-core CPU can handle more tasks simultaneously.

 Modern CPUs also have integrated graphics for basic display tasks.

3. Motherboard

Definition:
The motherboard is the main circuit board that connects and allows communication between all
computer components.

Main parts:

 CPU socket

 RAM slots

 Chipset (northbridge and southbridge functions integrated)

 Expansion slots (PCIe, PCI)

 Power connectors

 Storage connectors (SATA, NVMe)

 I/O ports (USB, HDMI, Ethernet)

Functions:

1. Distributes power to components.

2. Provides communication pathways through buses.

3. Houses firmware/BIOS for system boot.

4. RAM (Random Access Memory)

Definition:
RAM is temporary, volatile memory used by the CPU to store and quickly access data while the
system is running.

Key points:

 Volatile: Loses data when the system is powered off.

 Measured in GB and speed (MHz).

 Types: DDR3, DDR4, DDR5 (each faster and more efficient).

 More RAM allows more applications to run smoothly.

Example:
If a computer has low RAM, it may slow down when multiple programs are open.

5. Storage Devices

Types:

1. HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Magnetic storage, slower, high capacity, lower cost.

2. SSD (Solid State Drive): Flash memory, faster, more durable, more
expensive.

3. Hybrid drives (SSHD): Combination of SSD speed with HDD capacity.

4. Optical storage: CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs.

Key points:

 Storage is non-volatile (retains data without power).

 SSDs have no moving parts, hence more shock-resistant.

 NVMe SSDs are significantly faster than SATA SSDs.

6. Power Supply Unit (PSU)

Definition:
The PSU converts AC power from the wall outlet into low-voltage DC power for the computer's
components.
Functions:

1. Provides stable voltage to components.

2. Protects against power surges (in good quality models).

3. Measured in watts (W) — higher wattage supports more powerful hardware.

Example:
A gaming PC may require a 650W–850W PSU to support a high-end GPU.

7. Input & Output Devices

 Input devices: Keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, camera.

 Output devices: Monitor, speakers, printer, projector.

 I/O combo devices: Touchscreen, headset.

Importance:
Enables user interaction with the computer. Without input/output devices, the system cannot be
operated effectively.

8. Networking Hardware

Examples:

 Router: Directs data between networks.

 Switch: Connects devices within a local network.

 Modem: Converts ISP signals to digital data.

 Access Point: Extends wireless coverage.

Real-world importance:
Interviewers may ask about how these devices connect in a network setup.

9. BIOS/UEFI

Definition:
When you turn on your computer, the BIOS runs first — checking components and then handing
control to the OS like Windows, Linux, or macOS.
Firmware stored on the motherboard that initializes hardware and boots the operating system.

Functions:

1. POST (Power-On Self-Test).

2. Configures hardware settings.

3. Loads the OS bootloader.

10. Cooling Systems

A computer cooling system is a setup that removes excess heat generated by components like
the CPU,

 Air cooling: Fans and heat sinks.

 Liquid cooling: For high-performance systems.

 Prevents overheating, which can cause hardware failure.

Key point:
Temperature control extends component life.