Chapter 13: Electrical

Equipments
 Wattmeter
• An electrical instrument used to measure electric power in
watts of any circuit is called Wattmeter.
• It consists of two coils like the current coil and voltage coil.
• The current coil, which is connected in series & voltage coil
is connected in parallel.
• Wattmeters are mainly used in electrical circuit
measurement, debugging, transmission, distribution of
electrical power, power rating, consumption of electrical
appliances, utility frequency measurement, home
appliances and many more.
• These are classified into three types.
• They are Electrodynamometer wattmeter, Induction type
wattmeter, Electrostatic type wattmeter.
• Let us discuss an overview of the Electrodynamometer
wattmeter and Induction type wattmeter.
 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
• Electrodynamometer wattmeter is an instrument whose
working is related to the reaction between magnetic fields
of the fixed coil and moving coil which is connected across
the voltage (current is directly proportional to voltage).
Construction and Working Principle
• The Electrodynamometer wattmeter working
principle is very simple and easy.
• It is based on the theory of a current-carrying
conductor experiences a magnetic force when it is
placed in a magnetic field.
• Hence there will be a deflection of pointer that took
place due to the mechanical force.
• It contains two coils such as fixed coil (current coil) and
moving coil ( pressure coil or voltage coil).
• The fixed coil is used to carry the current and
connected in series with the load in any circuit.
• The moving coil carries the current directly
proportional to the voltage and connected across the
voltage.
• The value of current limited to a minimum value due to
large non-inductive resistance connected in series.
• The circuit diagram is shown earlier.
• The construction of the Electrodynamometer wattmeter includes fixed
coil, moving coil, control, damping, scales, and pointer. The construction of
the Electrodynamometer wattmeter is shown earlier.
Fixed Coil
• It is connected in series with the load, which is considered as the current
coil.
• To make construction easy and simple, it is divided into two parts.
• Those are two elements connected parallel to each other.
• It produces a uniform electric field, which is very essential for working.
• The current coil is designed in such a way that it carries approximately 20
Amperes.

Moving Coil
• Considered as pressure coil in this instrument, that is connected parallel
with the supply voltage. So, that current flows directly proportional to
supply voltage.
• A pointer is mounted on the moving coil with the help of spring to control
the movement.
• The temperature increases when current flows through the coil. So, in
order to control the flow of the current resistor is connected in series with
the moving coil.
Control
• It provides controlling torque onto the instruments.
• Gravity control and spring control are the two types in this control
system.
• Among these two Electrodynamometer wattmeters uses a spring
control system as it helps in the pointer movement.

Damping
• The effect which reduces the pointer movement is called damping.
• In this, damping torque is produced because of the air friction.
• Other types of damping are not used as they destroy the useful
magnetic flux.

Scales and Pointers

• It uses a linear scale as the moving coil moves linearly.
• The apparatus uses knife-edge pointers in order to remove parallax
error caused due to oversights.
 Theory of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
• The circuit diagram of the
Electrodynamometer wattmeter is shown
below.
• The instantaneous torque acting on the pointer is given by,
T1 = i1i2 dM/dθ
Where i1 and i2 are instantaneous currents in two coils.
• Let V and I are rms values of voltage and current being measured.
• The instantaneous voltage across the pressure coil is,
v =√2 V sin(ωt)
• The current will be in phase with voltage if a purely resistive
pressure coil is used.
• The value of the current is,
ip = v/Rp = √2(V / Rp)sin ωt = √2 Ip Sin ωt and Ip = Vp / Rp
• The current flowing through the current coil when it is lagged by
the voltage in phase angle is, ip = √2 I sin(ωt-∅)
• The current value is very small in the pressure coil. Hence it is
considered as the total load current.
• The torque acting on the coil is,
Ti = √2 Ip sin(ωt- Φ) X √2 I sin(ωt- Φ) dM/dθ
= Ip I cos(Φ – cos(2wt – Φ)dM/dθ
• The average deflecting torque is integration of Ti d(wt) from limit 0
to T over one T then Td = (V I / Rp) cosΦ dM/dθ
• Thus controlling torque exerted by spring: Tc = K θ
where K = Spring Constant and θ = final steady deflection.
• Since the moving system of the Electrodynamometer Type
Wattmeter cannot follow the rapid variations in torque (the
torque has a double frequency, component), it will take up
a position at which the average deflection torque is equal
to the restoring torque of the springs.

where P = power being measured = VI cos ∅ and K1 = 1/RpK

 Induction Type Wattmeter
• The induction type wattmeter can be used to measure a.c.
power only in contrast to dynamometer wattmeter which
can be used to measure d.c. as well as a.c. power.
• The principle of operation of an induction wattmeter is the
same as that of induction ammeter and voltmeter i.e.,
induction.

Principle
• However, it differs from induction ammeter or voltmeter in
so far that two separate coils are used to produce the
rotating magnetic field in place of one coil with phase split
arrangement.
• Figure (b) shows the physical arrangement of the various
parts of an induction wattmeter.
Construction
• Figure (a) shows the principal parts of an induction
wattmeter.
Figure a Figure b
• (i) It consists of two laminated electromagnets.
• One electromagnet, called shunt magnet is connected across the
supply and carries current proportional to the supply voltage.
• The coil of this magnet is made highly inductive so that the current
(and hence the flux produced) in it lags behind the supply voltage
by 900.
• The other electromagnet, called series magnet is connected in
series with the supply and carries the load current.
• The coil of this magnet is made highly non-inductive so that angle
of lag or lead is wholly determined by the load.
• (ii) A thin aluminium disc mounted on the spindle is placed
between the two magnets so that it cuts the flux of both the
magnets.
• The controlling torque is provided by spiral springs.
• The damping is electro-magnetic and is usually provided by a
permanent magnet embracing the aluminium disc [See Fig. (b)].
• Two or more closed copper rings (called shading rings) are provided
on the central limb of the shunt magnet.
• By adjusting the position of these rings, the shunt magnet flux can
be made to lag behind the supply voltage by exactly 900.
Working.
• When the wattmeter is connected in the circuit [See Fig.
(a)] to measure a.c. power, the shunt magnet carries
current proportional to the supply voltage and the series
magnet carries the load current.
• The two fluxes produced by the magnets induce eddy
currents in the aluminium disc.
• The interaction between the fluxes and eddy currents
produces the deflecting torque on the disc, causing the
pointer connected to the moving system to move over the
scale.
• The pointer comes to rest at a position where deflecting
torque is equal to the controlling torque.
• Let V = supply voltage
Iv = current carried by shunt magnet
lc = current carried by series magnet (= load
curent I)
cos Φ = lagging power factor of the load
• The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. (c).
• The current Iv in the shunt magnet lags the supply voltage V by 90° and so
does the flux Φv produced by it.
• The current lc in the series magnet is the load current and hence lags
behind the supply voltage V by Φ.
• The flux ΦC produced by this current (i.e., Ic) is in phase with it.
• It is clear that phase angle θ between the two fluxes is (90° - Φ) i.e.,
 Energy Meter
• The meter which is used
for measuring the energy utilises by
the electric load is known as the energy meter.
• The energy is the total power consumed and utilised
by the load at a particular interval of time.
• It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for
measuring the power consumption.
• The meter is less expensive and accurate.
• 3 basic types:
– Electrolytic Energy Meter – depends on electrolytic action.
– Clock Meter – functions as in clock mechanism.
– Motor Meter – works as if they are small motors, several
types:
• Mercury Motor Meter
• Commutator Motor Meter
• Induction Type Motor Meter – most common for ac energy meter.
 Construction and Working Principle of Energy Meter
• The construction of the single phase energy meter is shown
in the figure below.
• The energy meter has four main parts. They are the:
– Driving System
– Moving System
– Braking System
– Registering System
Driving System
• The electromagnet is the main component of the driving
system.
• It is the temporary magnet which is excited by the current
flow through their coil.
• The core of the electromagnet is made up of silicon steel
lamination.
• The driving system has two electromagnets.
• The upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the
lower one is called series electromagnet.
• The series electromagnet is excited by the load
current flow through the current coil.
• The coil of the shunt electromagnet is directly
connected with the supply and hence carry the
current proportional to the shunt voltage.
• This coil is called the pressure coil.
• The centre limb of the magnet has the copper
band.
• These bands are adjustable.
• The main function of the copper band is to align
the flux produced by the shunt magnet in such a
way that it is exactly perpendicular to the
supplied voltage.
Moving System
• The moving system is the aluminium disc mounted on the
shaft of the alloy.
• The disc is placed in the air gap of the two electromagnets.
• The eddy current is induced in the disc because of the
change of the magnetic field.
• This eddy current is cut by the magnetic flux.
• The interaction of the flux and the disc induces the
deflecting torque.
• When the devices consume power, the aluminium disc
starts rotating, and after some number of rotations, the
disc displays the unit used by the load.
• The number of rotations of the disc is counted at particular
interval of time.
• The disc measured the power consumption in kilowatt
hours.
Braking system
• The permanent magnet is used for reducing the
rotation of the aluminium disc.
• The aluminium disc induces the eddy current
because of their rotation.
• The eddy current cut the magnetic flux of the
permanent magnet and hence produces the
braking torque.
• This braking torque opposes the movement of
the disc, thus reduces their speed.
• The permanent magnet is adjustable due to
which the braking torque is also adjusted by
shifting the magnet to the other radial position.
Registration (Counting Mechanism)
• The main function of the registration or counting
mechanism is to record the number of rotations
of the aluminium disc.
• Their rotation is directly proportional to the
energy consumed by the loads in the kilowatt
hour.
• The rotation of the disc is transmitted to the
pointers of the different dial for recording the
different readings.
• The reading in kWh is obtained by multiply the
number of rotations of the disc with the meter
constant.
• The figure of the dial is shown below.
 Working of the Energy Meter
• The energy meter has the aluminium disc whose rotation
determines the power consumption of the load.
• The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt
electromagnet.
• The shunt magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has
the current coil.
• The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply
voltage, and the current coil produces it because of the current.
• The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90o on the
magnetic field of the current coil because of which eddy current
induced in the disc.
• The interaction of the eddy current and the magnetic field causes
torque, which exerts a force on the disc. Thus, the disc starts
rotating.
• The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of
the coil.
• The permanent magnet controls their rotation.
• The permanent magnet opposes the movement of the disc and
equalises it on the power consumption.
• The cyclometer counts the rotation of the disc.
 Theory of Energy Meter
• The pressure coil has the number of turns which makes
it more inductive.
• The reluctance path of their magnetic circuit is very
less because of the small length air gap.
• The current Ip flows through the pressure coil because
of the supply voltage, and it lags by 90o.
• The Ip produces the two Φp which is again divided into
Φp1 and Φp2.
• The major portion of the flux Φp1 passes through the side
gap because of low reluctance.
• The flux Φp2 goes through the disc and induces the driving
torque which rotates the aluminium disc.
• The flux Φp is proportional to the applied voltage, and it is
lagged by an angle of 90o.
• The flux is alternating and hence induces an eddy current
Iep in the disc.
• The load current passes through the current coil induces
the flux Φs.
• This flux causes the eddy current Ies on the disc.
• The eddy current Ies interacts with the flux Φp, and the
eddy current Iep interacts with Φs to produce the another
torque.
• These torques are opposite in direction, and the net torque
is the difference between these two.
• The phasor diagram of the energy meter is
shown in the figure below.
• Let
V – applied voltage
I – load current
∅ – the phase angle of load current
Ip – pressure angle of load
Δ – the phase angle between supply voltage and pressure
coil flux
f – frequency
Z – impedance of eddy current
∝ – the phase angle of eddy current paths
Eep – eddy current induced by flux
Iep – eddy current due to flux
Eev – eddy current due to flux
Ies – eddy current due to flux
• The net driving torque of the dis is expressed as

where K1 – constant, Φ1 and Φ2 are the phase

angle between the fluxes.
• For energy meter, we take Φp and Φs.
• β – phase angle between fluxes Φp and Φp = (Δ –
Φ), therefore

• If f, Z and α are constants,

• If N is steady speed, braking torque:
• At steady state, the speed of the driving torque is
equal to the braking torque.

• If Δ = 90o, Speed =

• The speed of the rotation is directly proportional

to the power.

• If Δ = 90o, total number of revolutions:

 Frequency Meter
• Frequency measurement is very important in many
applications, especially in AC power systems designed to
run efficiently at one frequency only.
• If the AC is generated by an alternator, the f will be directly
proportional to the shaft N, & f could be measured simply
by measuring the N of the shaft.
Types of Frequency Meters
• The different types of frequency meters are : -
– Mechanical resonance type
– Electrical resonance type
– Electrodynamometer type
– Weston type
– Ratiometer type
– Saturable core type
• The frequency can also be measured and compared by
other arrangements like counters, frequency bridges,
stroboscopic methods and cathode ray oscilloscope.
 Mechanical Resonance Type Frequency Meter
(Vibrating Reed Type)
Construction
• This meter consists of a number of thin steel strips called reeds .
• These reeds are placed in a row, alongside and close to an
electromagnet as shown in Figure a.
• The electromagnet has a laminated iron core and its coil is
connected in series with a resistance, across the supply whose
frequency is to be measured.
• The reeds are approximately about 4 mm wide and 1/2 mm thick.
• All the reeds are not exactly similar to each other.
• They have either slightly different dimensions or carry different
weights or flags at their tops.
• The natural frequency of vibration of the reeds depends upon their
weights and dimensions.
• Since the reeds have different weights and sizes, their natural
frequencies of vibration are different.
• The reeds are arranged in ascending order of natural frequency, the
difference in frequency is usually 1/2 Hz.
• Thus the natural frequency of first reed may be 47 Hz, of
the second 47.5 Hz, of the next 48 Hz and so on.
• The reeds are fixed at the bottom end and are free at the
top end.
• Since the reeds on a frequency meter are arranged to be
viewed end on, they have a portion bent over at the free
end to serve as a flag as shown in Figure b.
• The flags are painted white to afford maximum contrast
against their black background. a b
Operation
• When the frequency meter is connected across the supply
whose frequency is to be measured, the coil of
electromagnet carries a current i which alternates at the
supply frequency.
• The force of attraction between the reeds and the
electromagnet is proportional to i2 and therefore this force
varies at twice the supply frequency. ·
• Thus the force is exerted on the reeds every half cycle.
• All the reeds will tend to vibrate, but the reed whose
natural frequency is equal to twice the frequency of supply
will be in resonance and will vibrate most.
• Normally the vibration of other reeds is so slight as to be
unobservable.
• The tuning in these meters is so sharp that as the excitation
frequency departs from the resonant frequency the
amplitude of vibration decreases rapidly becoming
negligible for a frequency perhaps 1 to 2 % away from
resonance. This is clear from Figure 12.11.
• When the 50 Hz reed is vibrating with its maximum
amplitude (when it is in resonance) some vibrations of
49·5 Hz and 50·5 Hz reeds may be observed as shown
in Figure 12.12 b but very little vibrations will be
observed on 49 Hz and 51 Hz reeds.
• For a frequency exactly midway between that of the
reeds, both will vibrate with amplitudes which are
equal in magnitude, but considerably less than the
amplitude which is at resonance.
• Figure 12·12 c shows the condition of vibrating reeds
where the frequency is exactly midway between 49.5
Hz and 50 Hz.
• Figure 12.12 a shows the condition of the reeds when
the frequency meter is unexcited i.e. is not connected
to the supply.
 Power Factor Meter
• Definition: The power factor meter measures the power factor of
a transmission system.
• The power factor is the cosine of the angle between the voltage
and current.
• The power factor meter determines the types of load using on the
line, and it also calculates the losses occur on it.
• The power factor of the transmission line is measured by dividing
the product of voltage and current with the power.
• And the value of voltage current and power is easily determined by
the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter respectively.
• This method gives high accuracy, but it takes time.
• The power factor of the transmission line is continuously changed
with time.
• Hence it is essential to take the quick reading.
• The power factor meter takes a direct reading, but it is less
accurate.
• The reading obtained from the power factor meter is sufficient for
many purposes to expect precision testing.
• The power factor meter has the moving system
called pointer which is in equilibrium with the
two opposing forces.
• Thus, the pointer of the power factor meter
remains at the same position which is occupied
by it at the time of disconnection.
• The power factor meter is of two types.
• They are
1. Electrodynamometer
– Single Phase Electrodynamometer
– Three Phases Electrodynamometer
2. Moving Iron Type Meter
– Rotating Iron Magnetic Field
– Number of Alternating Field
Single Phase Electrodynamometer
Power Factor Meter
• The construction of the single phase electrodynamometer
is shown in the figure above.
• The meter has fixed coil which acts as a current coil.
• This coil is split into two parts and carry the current under
test.
• The magnetic field of the coil is directly proportional to the
current flow through the coil.
• The meter has two identical pressure coils A and B.
• Both the coils are pivoted on the spindle.
• The pressure coil A has no inductive resistance connected
in series with the circuit, and the coil B has highly inductive
coil connected in series with the circuit.
• The current in the coil A is in phase with the circuit while
the current in the coil B lag by the voltage nearly equal to
90o.
• The connection of the moving coil is made through silver or
gold ligaments which minimize the controlling torque of the
moving system.
• The meter has two deflecting torque one acting on the coil A, and
the other is on coil B.
• The windings are so arranged that they are opposite in directions.
• The pointer is in equilibrium when the torques are equal.
• Deflecting torque acting on the coil A is given as
TA = KVIMmax CosФ Sinθ
Where θ – angular deflection from the plane of reference and
Mmax – maximum value of mutual inductance between the coils.
• The deflecting torque acting on coil B is expressed as
TB = KVIMmax Cos(90o – Ф) Sin(90o + θ)
TB = KVIMmax SinФ Cosθ
• The deflecting torque is acting on the clockwise direction.
• The value of maximum mutual inductance is same between both
the deflecting equations.
• Hence at equilibrium: TA = TB
KVIMmax CosФ Sinθ = KVIMmax SinФ Cosθ , thus, Ф = θ.
• This torque acts on anti-clockwise direction. The above equation
shows that the deflecting torque is equal to the phase angle of the
circuit.