1e 1e Sp> Electronic Lone pair Geometry Molecular shape] Linear of Examples w planar f SiCL,SO2-, COE w PFs, SOF4, ASF a SFe,10Fs $02, 03, PbCl, NOz, SnBr. 150, N OF, SCL | Ww | XeF,J5 NH3,P C103, H30*|nd ONE TIME SUCCESS | | 5 gonal_ 7 All the | ) |bipyrami - oo | S: el benzyl c 'AX,E |5|Trigonal |Sp'd [1| seesa | \bipyrami_ | Pes EXAM| a dal | How mi AX,E>| 6\Octahedr |Sp’d° |2| Square al planar | AXsE | 6|Octahedr Spd |1| Square BrFs,TeFs,| al pyramidal | XeOF, | + SIGMA AND PIE BOND Sigma(a) bond is a bond that is involved in the formation of a a new compound It is a bond which is not broken in the formation of anew compound Sigma bonds are formed by (i) SS overlap orbital (i) PP. linearly overlap orbital All (ii) s-hybrid overlap orbitals bond (iv) p-hybrid overlap orbitals ‘ : i i bitals pybrid-hybrid overlap or! Me onds are linearly overlapped or end- end overlap. All single bond pair are sigma bonds. In any multiple bonds (i.e EXA doube or triple bonds) only one sigma bond is present. Sigma The bondis stronger than a pie bond because it has a higher degre ethy ofoverlapping Fol qi) Ppie(a) bond is a bond that is not involved in the formation of anev compound. Itis a bond which is broken in the formation ofa ev compound Pie bonds are formed by P-P orbitals thatAer Md ONE-TIME SUCCESS TUTORIAL aka Diligent Tutors: 07063474749 "| General Forma i : [Sit anata asa — Typical exompie TUPAC ea | + —| Grovp. A 7 pe | chain ethane ! | | eyetoattans— a usre__| i Gey =P Ring = j Gitstn Bato | butane alkyne a | bond z aL | sn | lonohydric Cy Hangs OH, R- On ~ On -O-—8 qe Alkanols or Cie ee == ¢- on Alcohols Re at Ethanot Bher or CiHine10G Mines | R= O> RCO akoxyalkane or - ae, A H-¢- 0-6-1 | ! hia methoxy hane “Alkyl halides | GyFigg ss Rox =x Er, y Halogenoalkane |” or" W-G¢-G- ct chloroethan, RY ht © ‘kanal or GHansiCHO | 7H yo aldehyde Goes Hon vas ace me te eee ' oe ? : oa proparat | Alkanone or | Cy Hay 5 COCa Hayy 0 ale 9 LEM et fetone or ve feb e a RRCO Ht 4 | puanone | a, = NH z ue mine or GHays epee fea Pee ae | Aninoalkane or : iat ens . RNH, 4 aminoethan Es . | =| Callan CONF, c come é yt e Cys2Hane20 R- TS, Hes Geico | a a Ni [site sere RCONT, s— F Propanoie / xi Son | imetiglpropa | y [rae | = C= i - | “Cl | propanoy! aeAte percros Oxidizing re peas went__| Reduced 0 in redox reaction ine nts: Th hese are reagents which are usually a5 Ba’ Metallic jons except fo alkaline earth metal and | The sulphide and | hydroxide of the group 1A and most of the group IA elements are water solubl exg.As** Be, Ca® Cu? tH Sb3*,Sn**,Co® Fe* nn? AB* Cr3*, Fe? Fe" Cr CO} or POS | Metallic ions except for alkali metals eg. Ca®*,Bat*.Mg?*, and Sr jon reagents: These are reagents that can result in (i) Hydration (ii)Complex ion formation (ii) Neu Hydration: Water is used for ionic substance Complex ion formation: This is due to the use of complexi agenis e.g. NH,OH(Ge. aqueous NH,),KCN,K1, ete Neutralization: This is due to (j) dissolution of acids and bass (ii) dissolution of metallic oxides and acids ts that result in Hyurolyzing reagents: These are reav hydolysis. They include, H1,0,0H~ CLASSIFICATION OF ANIONS (Clas A: These are anions that are displaced by non-volatile ural acids such as H_S0, and H,POs, The acids give off their parent gases which may decompose or oxidize to the cortsponding oxides or gases. The class A anions are usually ini fied by the dry test. Class A anions are divided into bso reins namely Al and A2 Alqroup: These are class A anions that are Aides mineral acids e.g. CO3-»S* SO} NO A24roup: These are class A anions that are displaced by co nentraed mineral acids e8. NO3 CBr J displaced by Cis B: These are anions that are stable 10 acids. They are Usuly ident fed in solutions either by precipitating reas! ot Fede reagent. Class B anions are divided info 160 farely BI and B2 groups Brlgroups These pre class B_ anions that are ideniied bs Reeplating reagenise-g. POF" SOR .CI.BT I Bagroup: These are class B anions that are idenffied by We de reagents, B2-group anions ae divided it ly Bz, and Bz, groups ‘groups ‘ 49 Bayt «Group: Th, a-Group, These SPB? gia by the a aCL.KCI, ee lutions Hcl Group 2: These are cation acidic medion PbS Sn They are pe ur assing 5 through ther ace sao Slaton Group 24 sulphides: These are cations that insoluble es 1gS,CuS.CdS,Bi,5,,PbS Foup 2B sulphides: 5 of the group 2 neess (WH), 5 f tions that are soluble in he )a8. Tey ae su Hy)a5 due to the formation ofthe th a saa ho-compex The table below gives the colour of son Cation Sulphide 7 __ sulphide | Hg?.Poe | Hg5, Pos, Cus, | Black Cut Agh, | Ag:5,.NIS,FeS | we ret, | cos (a Brown] Brown | Dull yellow ns Vv «Group 35 These are cations that Ts ‘with low solubility products. They solution using »NH,OH(ie e.g. Fe®* Fe**,Cr** APY To abl blow gives ome hydroxides and thi clous | Cation | Hydroxide of I |_| hydroxide TL re(omy [Green [re(OH), | Resdih-bromn Green or (OH) Group 4: Th ptated fs sikaline medium, They are preci : atkaline slut WS through theit passin Co? Wie Mn? ZnAttend ONE hat form insoluble carbonate hey are precipitated from solution usinz (WH,)¢C0y or any lubie earbonates. They can also be pi ed using: precipitated using soluble sulphates eg. Ca®*,Bai*,Mg?* and§ / Group 6: These are vations. that are pot affected. by Precipitating agents because their salts, hydroxides and sulphides are soluble in water K*Na* NHS . SOLUBILITY GUIDELINE Solubility guideline is a generalizatin that shows the trend of solubility of substances in aqueous These generalizations are as stated below. * The common inorganic acids are soluble in water. Low- molecular-weight organic acids are also soluble + All common compounds of Group 1A metal ion (Li* Na’,K*, Rb*, Cs*)and ammonium ions, 4H, are soluble * The common nitrate, NOv; acetates, CH,COO™: chlorate, Cog; and perchlorate, CLO; are soluble in water. + The common chloride, Ct>, ate soluble in water except for AGLI, HapCle, and PbCL = The common bromides,ar”, iodides, 1°, show apyroximately the same solubility behaviour as chlorides, bbui there are some exceptions. As these halide ions (€r,Br>, I-A) increase in size, the solubilities of their sligily scluble compound decrease + Th: common fluorides, F°, are soluble in water except Fy, CaF, StF, BaF, and PF, «The common sulphate, S03, are soluble in water except PbOy, BaS0y, and H9S0, CaSOs, SrS0, and AgeS0y are maerately soluble + Thy-common metal hydroxides, OH”, are insoluble in water ‘exept those of Group 1A metals and the heavier members ‘of xe Group IIA metals, beginning with Ca(OH), + Thx common carbonates, C03", phosphates, PO%", and arsnates, ASO}, are insoluble in ater except those of Grup 1A metals and Nit. MgCO, is moderately soluble. + Th: common sulphides, 52, are insoluble in water except thee of the Group 1A and Group HA metals and the solution, FLAME TEST. A Mme test is a simple test for metals in which a small amoat of the sample (usually moistened with hydrochloric acied hydrogen trioxoniteate V) is placed on the end of platium wire and held in a Bunsen flame. Certain metals ean be ected by the colour produced, The table below gives, sor aenetal and the odour of the jon determined by flame test lement Flamescolour ‘Li__| Magenta to carmine, deep red (crimson) Wa | Golden yellow/strong persistent orange K___| Lilae (violet, pink or pale purple) Mg | Bright white —Zn__| Bluish-greeniwhitish-green Fe | Gold Pb | Blue or grayish-white Abe | Stae o 5 | Bright green 2a Pale, yellowish or pale gree ‘a__| Briek-red, orange-red ceil Ke = 50 uc? [Blue Gut? | Bluergreen in| Blue [Yellowish Yellowish: Purple-red, red or reddish-violet Aare blue Crimson (eep-69) ws some irregularity in the flame cok ‘of some element, The irregularity observed, is the different Way colour ean be perceived. For an instant, the colour lilac bee perceived or describe as violet, pink or pale purple Colours give problem to many people, duc 10 differen individual perspective PERIODIC TABLE ‘The periodic table is a table in which elements are arranged in a horizontal row called period and in the vertical column called group, GROUP IN ELEMENTS (ALKALI METALS) + The group 1A elements are Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium(K), Rubidium (Rb), Caesium (Cs) and Francium (Fo). Francium is radioactive Sodium is the most important clement in the exoup follow by Li The silvery lustre of alkali metals is due to the presence of highly mobile electrons ofthe metallic lattice Lithium, Sodium Potassium, Rubi ‘while Caesium is golden-yellow um is. silvery-white ‘= The elements illustrate more clearly than any other group the effect of increasing atomic or oni size on physical and chemical properties Lithium is extracted by the electrolysis of a fused chloride in which potassium chloride is added to lower the melting point Sodium is extracted by the electrolysis of fused Sodiu chlorides using the down cell with eatbon anod: cathode, Calcium chloride is added 10 lower the meliing of sodium chloride and steel ‘ Potassium is prepared by the reduction of Potassivin chloride by sodium vapour Na(g) + KCU(N) + K(g) + Nact(!) Rubidium is prepared by the reduction of Rubidium chloride by Calcium vapour Cag) + ZRBC) + 2Rb(g) + CaCct,(1) ‘© Caesium is prepared by the reduction of Caesium chloride by Calcium vapour Ca(g) + 2CsCl(l) > 2Cs(g) + Cacte(!) ‘= They have the least complicated chemisiry than any other group. + They are s-block elements—_ Attend ONE pically soft and highly react typic rity (in gem”) inerease down the group except assium is less dense than Sodium. and second ionization energy decrease down the nthe gaseous state, lithium is the least reduci gent while sium isthe best reducin nt due to the ease of los electrons In hydrated form, their reducing strength or ch inceeases from Na to Cs with Li being the stro reducing agent due to energy consideration, Lithium has the highest hydration energy. The higher the hydration energy thelowerthe reducing strength + Toric mobility in the aqueous medium increases from Lithium to Caesium, This due to the decrease inthe strength of hydration from Li to Cs + Ekcironegativity decrease down the group with Potassium ‘and Rubidium has the same value (i.e. 0.8) + Tivir sublimation energy decreases down the group + Their uorides are the most stable while their iodides are the Test stable + Tie enthalpies of formation of the chlorides, bromides and ‘oles become more negative down the eroup + The enthalpies of formation of the fluorides become less erative down the group + Tie enthalpies and entropies of hydration becomes more ‘ant more negative on going down the group Tieir trioxonitrate decomposes to give dioxonitrate IIL and ‘Orygen gas “Fecir enthalpies of atomization or cohesive energy decrease san the group % ‘Te atomization eneray of the grouplA elements is half of Ye group 2A elem cents lS and one-third that of group 3A nt and boiling point decreases down the ‘Te flame colour of Li-Crimson, Na-Golden Yellow, K-lilac lesiolet, Rb: Red - Violet and Cs-Blue 1 Te compounds of group 1A elements are diamagnetic [stroxides and hydroxides ae strong bases. Te ox sats are very sable ir teary compounds ion contain transi ‘anion ‘kali metals disso ve in ws aes A161 liberate hydrogen gas and fm strong caustic solution agers ene a(S) + 24000) = 2naoH(aq) are colour they are bonded with mn elements. The colours come from + tita) i. except that of Lithium ‘ LigCOs(s) - Liz0(s) « 2UOH + Lid + + The solubility ofthe hydroxides KB), carbonate (¢8 NaxC0.) and ton NaHCO: ) increases down the =. pinion’ + The solubility ofthe chlorides dereases fom Lit and then increases from RBCI t0 CSCL. Thus, csCl wv ne most soluble and KCI is the least soluble ag + The solubility of the bromides and iodides decreases down the group + The fluorides are the most stable while the iodides are the ast stable + Their hydrogen trioxocarbonate IV (ie. biearkonate) omposes 0 give trioxocarbonate IV, carbon IV oxide and water 2NaHCO,(s) +N C05(s) + COx(9) + H20(9) + Their nitrate decomposes on heating to give dioxo Lit and oxygen except fo 2NaNO W03(s) + 03(9) ALIN, + 2Li,0(s) + 02(g) + 2NO2(9) (On descending the group, the decomposition of the nita become and more difficult, hence a higher temperature is nee + They form monoxide or normal superoxide (K, Rb, C3) ide, peroxide (Li, Na) The oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solution Na,0(s) + H,0(l) > 2NaOH(aq) Na,0;(s) + 2H30(1) > 2Ni aOH (aq) + H202(0) 2Naz02 + 2H,0(0) = 4 K0,( They oH(ag) + 03a) 2KON(ag) + H:03(0) + 02(9) + 1,00 = form monoxides, oxides and superoxides with ‘oxygen when they are in liquid ammonia They react with alkyl halides to form metal alkyl 2C5 + CHsCL + CH,CS + CSC + They react with aromatic hydrocarbon to form n 1 Golta(t) + Nals) + NaCl + 5 Ha ‘) They react witha terminal alkyne in liguid ammonia to fom acctylide % ane 1 Ls) cn cH 25 pic = cH + 519) The hydrides which ionic ‘salt-lke” hydrides in whieh oxidation state of bydroxen is~ 1 «© Nitride is formed only Lithium (Li) which is joni red in colour. ashe st jodides, fluorides. brom + They form phosphides. antimonide selenides, tllurdes, chlorides and amidesLithium forms carbide when heated with ¢ yeatbd with Carbon (Li The other elements form carbides with ethyne Note that NayC, react with water to ve ethyne and sodium hydroxide, cr aH (aq) + Col (aq) + CHCy. Difference between Lithium and the other elements © Ithas a higher melting and boilin, p + Ie harder than the other elements + It forms monoxide + It forms peroxide with great difficulty are unstable + LiOflis tess basic = Its salts are ess stable = Wt forms nitrides = 1 forms ionic carbides * lishigher oxide + It shows a greater tendency to form complexes inthe group + The carbonates, phosphates and furides are insoluble + Itshalides and alkalis are move covalent in nature Its halides and alkalis are more hydrated. He soluble in organic solvents ‘+ Itsion and compounds are more hydrated, Note that the anomalous behaviour of the first element in a grou is due to the following + Thesmall size ‘+ The absence ofa vacamt d-orbital * ‘© The higher electronegativity For tte above reasons the first element in any group that is capatie of forming complexes form complexes with» coo rénation number of 4. The other elements form comple es swith coordination number of 6 GROUP HA ELEMENTS x # Thy group HA elements are Berylluih (Be), Magnesium (N4), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sf), Barium (Ba) and Rain (Ra). Radium is radioactive,” «+ Bevllium and Barium compound are very toxic « Thy are divalent and form colourless compounds «Thy are reducing agents. Their reducing strength both in threanscous and the hydrated form increases down the wroup 16 Thy are known as Alkaline earth metals «They ae s-block elements is as hard as iron. The hardness decreases down, + Berllium thyzroup, «Phir melting and boiling points decrease down the group Phy are harder than the atkali metals {£Tbir melting and boiling points are higher th alli ‘ «Toby have a higher strength or degree of bondini ™ alli “T-tir hydration energy decreases down the group Attend ONE TIME SUCCESS TUTORIAL aka Dili crystallization than the alkal metals, Th molecules of water of erystallizatio + Their compounds are diamagnetic and colouy they contain coloured anions «Their solubility depends on the latice of the sg : hydration energy :; + The lattice and the hydration ener group 5 + The lower the lattice energy of a substance the higher : solubility : + Beryllium and Magnesium are greyish metals + The flame solour of Be-white, Me-white, Ca-Briek-ree orange-red, St- crimson and Ba-pale Since the Mame colour of Beryllium and magnesium white, Beryllium and Magnesium is said to have 0 flane 3 colour + Beryllium chlorides polymerize in the solid states é ‘= The higher the hydration energy of a substance the hish the solubility . + The stability oftheir carbonates inc + The solubility of their sulphar wn the eroup © down the group ‘= For a substance to dissolve the hydration enersy must be E her than the latice energy ‘= The solubilities of their fluorides and hy. down the group. This due to the fact th ronides increase apidly than the hyd + The solubility of their other compound decreases down the group. This is due 10 the fact that the hydration ene decreases more rapidly than the lattice enerey + Electronegativity decrease down the group with calcium and Strontium have the same value (ie. 1.0) + Their fist, second and third ionization eneray decrease down the group. The second ionization of radium is ish than that of Barium = Barium sulphate is used in the treatment of duodenal and stomach ulcers because of its insolubility in water (ie. 1 ‘ot absorbed into the body) and apaqueness to x-rays. Its radiopaque contrast medium, Is works by coating the inside lof the stomach so that it can be easily by x-rays + Beryllium is obtained by the electrolysis of a fused beryllium ehloride, lithium chloride and potassium chlo Beryllium can also be obtained by the reducto beryllium Muoride with magnesium BeF; + Mg Be+ Mgr, = Ma iesium is obtained from dolomite,CaMg(COy) CaMg(COs); Cad + M90 + 20. 2Mg0 + 2Ca0 + Fesi Magnesiui Ig # Ca also be obtained by the ‘Oxides by carbon ata temperature of 200°C 2Ma0 + cSanesium can also be obtained from the eles oh J misture of magnesium chloride, caleinr ride and fu chloride * Calcium i obtained from the elecolsis of sed caeium eae Galcium is also obtained by the reduction calcium oxide by Aluminium SOS 2Ca+ ALO, + All the metas except Beryii 3Ca0 + 2 um react with water to liberate Oxides, Magnesium reacts with hex water while Calcium, Strontium and b Cals) + 2H20(0) > Ca(OH),(aq) + Hg(g) + Their hydroxides are Hydrogen gas and hyd; Barium react with cold soluble except Beryllium hydroxides * Allthe metals react with acids liberating hydrogen Cas 2HCl~ CaCl, + Hy + Boyllium reacts witht Bes Ikaline because it is amphoteric ‘OH + 21120 - Was[Be(OH),) + iy + They form monoxides or normal oxides Bes 0; + Bed, * Peoxide is formed only by Barium. Note that peroxides are ‘oxides in which the oxidation state of Oxygen is ~ 1 Ba+ 0; + Ba0, * Tieirtioxonitrate decomposes to give oxides, nitrogen IV ‘ride and Oxygen gas 3(N03)a(s) > MgO(s) + NOx(9) + 03(g) * Tey hychide except fr beryllium GiGS) + H1(9) ~ Catt,(s) * Te hydrides react with water to form hydroxides and Titerate hydrogen gas Giti(3) + 2H,0(0 > Ca(OH),(aq) + Hy(g) + They form nitride a high temperature 3H 9(5) + Na(g) > Magan, * Te nitrides dissolve in water to form hydroxides and Jierating ammonia gas MpMa{s) + 611,0() > 3Mg(011),(aq) + 3¥11,(9) + Tey form phosphide ahh temperature * ‘Tey form sulphide, selenides and tellurdes + Tey form fluorides, chlorides, bromides and iodides * They all form amines at higher temperature * Teir vioxccarbonates decomposes * Te stability of their carbonsies inereases down the group Sryllium carbonate has the least decomposition nPerature while barium carbonate has the highest ompostion temperature, * Teir oxides and hydroxides are bases ‘except for beryllium ide and hydroxide which is amphoteric * Weir rioxocarbonates decomposes #COs(s) ~ Be0(s) + CO,(9) Me niss Mhveen Bertidntana inc onsets 188 ahigher melting and bo ling points Farder than the other elements * Morms monoxide 53 TUTORIAL a ka Dil $18 oxides and hydroxides sre an tO" 0 + Tthas a high tenden i * Beryllium hydride is Election multicentre bond k = II forms many complexe *+ Beryllium is amphoteric + Wis rendered passive by Ho, + Its salts are among thomostsotubte sa sgliferms carbide, B,C. The carbide ds fier form methane GROUP IA ELEMENTS * The group THA elements are Boron(B), Alumni (ay, Gallium (Ga), Indium (In) and Thallium (14 + They are p-block elements * They form ions in solutions because they hydration ener is higher than their ionization enera {These clements mark the beginning ofthe p-blocketemen, + Boron is a non-metal and forms covalent bond only * All the elements show an oxidation state of +3, Gallium, {Indium and Thallium show also the oxidation state of + * Gallium, Indium and Thallium show inert pair effect + Inert pair eff ct is the inability of the paired s electron (ic ns®) of the valence shell to be unpaired due to the high energy required to unpair them * The inen paired effect leads to the increase inthe stability of Joy oxidation state and decrease in the stability of higher oxidation state in heavier p-blo. * The inen pair effect is shown mainly by group IIIA, IVA and VA, * The s electrons will remain paired if the ener, Unpaired them is ge form bonds required Her than the energy evolve when they * Univatent compound, become predominate from Gallium through Indium to Thallium @ * The compounds of Indium and Thallium are Covalent when in anhydrous form but form ions in solutions Gallium, * The tendency to form a univalent compound increases down the group + The univatent ions are much larger than the trivalent ions * The + 1 oxidation comfpound is ionic like the alkali metals * The stability of the lower oxidation state increases down the group * The melting and the boiling points decrease down the group Gallium has the lowest melting + The electropositivity or metallic character increases fi to Al but decreases frqm Alto TI * The + 3 oxidation state becomes less stable 0 the group is less than the * The first ionization energ energy while the second ionization third ionization energyonium itrates dinate en or vutine metal and ting on of yn as on of 13 Biz - pair grids mble only 57 ee wee 2 APHOSphoru: a obtained by burning pbospt Oxide) car rus in air Basicity of the oxide increases down the group Trioxide of phosphorus and arsenic are acid t antimony is amphoteric while bismuth is basic st Phosphorus forms an addition coordination bond donating its lone pair of electrons to oxygen at Oxygen atoms Stability of higher oxidation compound i nds (i.e. tendency form + 5) decrease down the group Sb,0, and As,O, are dbtained by direct react sROUP VIA ELEMENTS The first member is oxygen and it is a non-metal Sulphur and selenium, tellurium and polonium are metalli » known as chalcogens (Ore-formers) They a Oxygen usually obey the octet rule and the close sh configuration in \hich it obeys the octet rule is by the either of the following: z * electron gain to form the oxide OF formation of two covalent single bonds such as R- 0 - R or formation of a double bond such as 0 = C = 0 * gain of one electron and formation of a single bond such as OH™ ¢ formation of three or four covalent bonds as we have in R,OH* Oxygen is produced heavily and use in the iron and ste industry Sodium sulphide is used in bleaching paper and pulp yt of much importance but w Sulphur as an element is nc produce is converted to Sulphur acid The difference between oxygen and other members 1s duct its small size and duesto its high electronegativity and lack of d-orbital. It is the second most electrone! Oxygen uses its prt - orbital to form strong this is not found in other members of the group Oxygen form very strong hydro Sulphur shows a tendency to 10" ch Most of the atmospheric oy! photosynthesis in plant n bonds+ About 90% of sulphur is converted into HaS04. 60% of 1.50, 1 used in production of feilizer, 10% of sulphur proluce. is used” in production of compounds lik insecticides, fungicides and gun powder + Subhur exists in more allosopie form than any other Elemeat For eeatyple 4 (i) Onhorhombic Sulphur (a sulphur) at room temperature i) Monoclinic Sulphur (fi sulphur) at > 955°C = The most important compound of Sulphur is the oxoacid + They usually exist as anions and salts where there are stro pm de bonding between oxyuen and sulphur in whieh the lujhur losses its d-orbital. Fg. Sulphurous acid, Sulphur act, thionic acid (Hs50,) . Grow VIA + Tho are also known as halogen (salt former) 1 first member is the reactive and in te periodic table 1+ Florine differs from members of iis group in that = his smaller than others, has a high nuclear charge effect ily available d-orbital 0 ose for bondi # The properties of chlorine and bromine are close due to the folowing Chloride ion is 38% lar jorine jon while that of chlorine is 6.5% larger than that of bromine +The 3d? electrons in Br do not shield the outermost electron well hence the size of Br is smaller than expected . ‘Their electronegativity valuc is close + Florine does not have higher oxidation st i feut to prepare as itis extremely re: + Carine is prepared in the following = Re ceaction of NaCl with H,S0, = he reaction of hydrochloric acid with MnO; fcctrolysis of aqueous NaCl during the manufacture of aH + sectrolysis of fused NaCl «Pier ionization energy is very high with fuorine bein, hrigest + Thionie bond with metals = C1Br, and; shows a decrease in bond energy but with Aine, there is usually low bond energy level ‘+ Thhunusual bond eneray of fluorine is due to + dience of d-ortital > ‘nall F~ F distance because of its small size gives room ‘rimtemictear repulsion on the fone pair of electrons, iron affinity is maximum at chlorine + South the electron affinity of fluorine is highest, it is not pp sronesYoidiing agen rather Muorine, 1 is Nuorine : ‘ = ener8y dlssoeiaion of beeaise of weak F = F bond te and it is very the 58 ay f the hall ane est ac T ityurogen fh a nydetion depends 0° Esp halides avez Dissociation + The acid stent of dehydration tne following Sere : “onion nerey 1 ve ; hermodynamically feasible sae down he SOUP + They are al 1 Metallic properties inc oe rpelves. These compounds 2 They form a compound with is an odd number are generally represented as XX}, where and X' «= All interhalogen compounds are diamagnetic + Xxx! > xx! + xx 2 xx oF solv ‘always higher than X are linear in shape are usually T-shape ace usually square pyramidal are usually pentagonal pyramidal isa good Muorinating agent as well as being used GROUP VILA, The elements of the group VIIT known as a noble 8s They are sometimes called race gases or inert gases. The # Vill elements are Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (AP) Krypton (K1), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn). The group Vill clements are chemically stable because they ob; uples structure. As a result The noble and low pr DUD the octet o do not react at the ordinary condition es undergo chemical reacti The noble gases: He, Ne atmosphere but a4 the atmosphere Ar, Kr and Xe are all found in the jon (Af) is the most abundant nobl The othe tmospher The table below shows the amount in the oundance of the noble gases in the Abundance in Atmosphere (% Volume) [ Noble Gases |e SSA 0001 a I [RES 130.93, cree | | 7 0.00011 ome ¥ 1 0.0000087 The occurrence of Noble gases © They all occur in the atmosphere © Argon is quite abundant and it is recovered by fractior distillation of air * The non-radioactive gases are all produced by fract distillation of liquid air Radon is radioactive and it is produced by 1! radium (236)Properties oF Noble Gases Waal forces and therefore have ye, Van yapouretion, The enthalpy or pry hs down the group pies of zer0, they are known as inert and nee ve # Nalency theiratom doesnot combine with ancine ean PSA Genial Properite or Groce vitne + They Fam molecular ton ude ie exited condi # They form a clathrate « mpound. Clathrate are formed when the noby # They do not form bonds, theref with the slightest m A clathrate is formed by low molecular weight nob tases ie, He, Ne and Ar le Compound Formation The compound formation is through * Goordination + Excitation + Induced dipole * Clathrate formation Application oF Uses of Noble Gases (0) Motion * ILis used in the filling of observation balloons and lightercthan-air crafis because it is non-flammable and has about 93% of the lifting power of Nammable hydrogen + It is used as a diluent for because it is non-flammable and nonreactive * Helium and oxygen mixture are used for respiratory patient because it has a low density through a restricted passage. * It is used as a heat transfer medium in uc Fogeiors because it transfers heat realy become radioactive and itis chemically inert * Its used to provide an inert atmosphere for weld easily oxidizable metals because it is chemical inert Liquid Helium is used 10 maintain very Femperatures in research (eryogenics) because of its extremely low boiling point + Helium is mix with oxygen and use by divers. Use o dilute oxygen reducing its solubility * Helium is used as cooking gas in a gas cooked nuclear reaction * Helium is used in weather balloon aseous anaesthetic Used in Neon signs. This is because re, ‘moderate electric current cause brisht uted glow which can be modified by the 4 glass or mixing with Ar or He vapour {ts a remarkable property of catty Y high currents even under high voltaze 59 @ iin ition ofthe Amey, MS That even + Wis used in "acon Silferent cons, PF ining tig + The smaller amount © Argon, Nitage ced High bulbs, torescet ng ) Krypton + Light il app ly well However, krypton i ceo searce and krypton light shen hoe 7 1s sed in al {han Ar (bu itis more expensive and {Lamps filled with krypton are us % approached lighs since their li dense fog unusually (©) Xenon + Xe and Kr mixture is used in high-intensity, shor. exposure photosraphic flash tubes. This is because Xenon and krypton have fast response to elec + Xenom is used as an anesthetic matetal but tis very costly. Iis non-flammable and readily eliminated from the body (9 Radon + Ie is used in radiotherapy of cancerous tissues because itis radioactive +h is used in radioactive esearch since it is radios + Its used in X-ray photography for the detection of flaws in metals and other solids ‘OxiDeS (Oxides are binary compounds of Oxy classified based on structure and based on chemical reaction n, Oxide is general ‘Oxides are classified based on structure in + Normal oxides = Peroxides oxides «Super ox + Suboxides + Mixed oxides Oxides are classified based on the chemical reation i + Acidic oxides # Basic oxides———————™ =e and BrF are spectively of PF; Me ear (b) Trigonal bipyramidal f square planar (4) a id (c) tetrahedral and od saa fear td trahedral [PIA metas react wit ith water to form (a) hydrogen neutral sl b trong alkali solution (c) saute solution with the liberation of hydrogen re sphate of barium is useful in the treatment of Pesem and stomach vlers because of its: (a) low ici 6) molt in wate) aby se eeaquenss 10 X-rays (2) opaqueness to X-rays th car ass of n-butanol (784) is similar 0 that of I sieges why the boing pois of Tatmol and’ n-pentsre are 117°C and 36. pecively (a) lage Bond dipole moment in n-butanol 4 rel of sipticam diftzeace i. lecroncgaivity eer Bevee hrerce ml onvaes (J slechols usally lave lirger Bling porns than altones () there i tonic fond fh n-butanol and covalent bond inn penane (2) butanol ts an onle compound while pentane has | i weak Van der Waal's forces alent bond is a bond formed when: (a) there is on of electric charge in a covalent bond involving 2 shill of electrons toward the more electronegative atom (b) one pars of electrons in an atom take part in bonding (6) there is transfer of electrons (d) two atoms share a lone ir of electrons § Which of these compounds hasihave high solubility in water? LICIOg, Lily, LizC0,, Lil and CSF (a) LiClO, ,CSF ) Lily LtgCOs (c) Lil (4) CoE % Sirogen (Il) oxide is paramagnetic, because? (a) it ited electrons (b) it contains twelve ectrons (€) it contains seven unpaired electrons (d) 1 coains an odd number of electrons . he types of oxides formed by alkali metals inc | Dido. menor (b) pendence | Howie, Superorides (0) mononder ras ipa MAA ‘agus Solin of this cagen wil exinc Aipamine hom an organic soutas of chyna (CsCl Wh) tag ort CisCH,CltsCOOH): (3) hydrochloric acid (b) sodnn, ‘More (c) sodium hydroxide (4) both b an c Seip reget ssn oe cee pc reap aN » Sie i 16 ce ea mh she a organic compound which is _ aly a Fe propanol (d) 2 ~ butanol : ease arth eel yeec a i coeniss inguish between 2 - propanol and 1 - propanol: ( sp* (b) sp (c) sp? (d) spd ry amines react with (b) HCI functional group (c) solubility (d) isomerism Which of the following is soluble in water? (a) CHCHACH CH, — (b)—CHyCH3CH,CHO—_(c) CH,CH,CH,OH (),CH,COCH,CH, Which “of the following is a CHyCH,CHO? (a) CH,OCH = CH, (b) CHyOCH,CM, (c) CH,CHCH,OH (4) CH,COCH, Which of the following has the highest boiling point? (a CHyCH(CH,)CHy (b) CH,CH,CHy (©) CHyCH, (di CH,CH,CH,CH, The orbitals that overlap in methane are (a) s ands (b) and 5 (c) sp? and s (d) sp and 5 Structural isomer of Which of the following is an ester? (a) CH,CO0C CH,COCH, (c) CH,CHO (d) CH,COOH Inter-conversion of one structure to another by 3 hift of electrons from one atomic pe . hout any shift in atomic positions™ is? (a isomerism (b) resonance (c) hybrid effect The most acidic of eo CH,COOM (b) CICH SoLurios