DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING
1. Introduction to Communication and Data Communication

 Communication: Sending or receiving information; sharing of data.

 Communication System: Combination of hardware and software used to exchange
information between devices.

Data Communication

 Definition: Exchange of data between two devices via transmission media.

 Data is transmitted as signals:
1. Digital Signal: In this signal, data is transmitted in electronic form, i.e. binary digits
(0 or 1).
2. Analog Signal: In this signal, data is transmitted in the form of radiowaves like in
telephone line.
3. Hybrid Signal: These signals have properties of both analog signal and digital
signal.

2. Communication Channels

The communication channel refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices.

1. Simplex: In this channel, the flow of data is always in one direction, with no capability to
support response in other direction. This communication is unidirectional. Only one of the
communicating devices transmits information and the other can only receive it. E.g. Radio,
Television, Keyboard, etc.
2. Half Duplex In this channel, the data can flow in both directions, but not at a same time.
When one device transmits information, then other can only receive at that point of time.
e.g. Walkie –Talkie
3. Full Duplex: In this channel, the flow of data is in both directions at a time, i.e. both
stations can transmit and receive information simultaneously. E.g. Wireless handset
(mobile phone).
3. Communication Media (Transmission Media)

 Means of carrying data signals from one point to another. It can be broadly defined as
anything that can carry information from a source to destination. It refers to the physical
media through which communication signals can be transmitted from one point to another.

 Types:

1. Guided Media (Wired Technologies)

This type of media uses cables to send data along a fixed path.

Main types of guided media:

A. Twisted Pair Cable (Ethernet Cable)

 It has two wires twisted around each other.

 One wire carries the signal, and the other works as a ground.
 It is covered by insulating material and a protective outer layer.
 Used in: Local Area Networks (LANs)

Example: Ethernet cable used to connect computers in offices or schools.

B. Co-axial Cable

 It has a single inner wire that carries the electric signal and an outer wire that acts as a
shield.
 These are wrapped in protective materials like PVC or Teflon.
 Used in: Cable TV and city-wide TV networks.

Example: Cable connection used for television.

C. Fibre Optic Cable

 Made from glass or plastic fibers.

 Sends data using light signals.
 Very fast and can carry data over long distances.
 Not affected by electricity or interference.
 The speed of optical fibre is hundred of times faster than co-axial cables.

Example: Internet lines provided by telecom companies for high-speed internet.

2. Unguided Media (Wireless Technologies)

This type of media does not use wires. Data is sent using air, in the form of waves.

Common types of wireless media:

A. Radio Wave Transmission

 Sends data using radio frequencies.

 This transmission is also known as Radio Frequency (RF) transmission.
 Works in all directions (omnidirectional).
 These are omnidirectional. Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky
mode, can travel long distances.

Example: FM radio, Wi-Fi routers.

B. Microwave Transmission

 Microwaves are electromagnetic waves.

 Uses high-frequency waves (0.3 to 300 GHz).
 Microwaves are unidirectional
 Sends data in a straight line (line-of-sight).
 Faster than radio waves.

Example: Mobile networks, TV broadcast towers.

C. Infrared Transmission

 Uses short-range, high-frequency waves.

 Can’t pass through walls or solid objects.
 Only works if devices are close.

Example: TV remotes, wireless mouse, and speakers.

D. Satellite Communication

 Uses satellites in space to send and receive signals.

 Great for long-distance communication.
 Fast and works almost everywhere.

Example: GPS systems, satellite phones, TV channels in remote areas.

What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology that allows devices to exchange data over
short distances using radio waves.

 Works in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medical) band.

 It was developed to replace short-distance cables like USB or AUX.
 Range varies from 10 meters to 100 meters, depending on version and power.
 Commonly used in: Phones, laptops, wireless headphones, speakers, keyboards,
smartwatches, etc.

Bluetooth was developed by Dr. Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson, engineers at Ericsson, a
Swedish company in 1994.

Why is it called "Bluetooth"?

The Story of King Harald "Bluetooth"

 King Harald “Bluetooth” Gormsson was a 10th-century Viking King of Denmark and
Norway.
  He was famous for uniting warring regions of Denmark and Norway, just like Bluetooth
connects different devices.
 He was nicknamed "Bluetooth" because:
o Some say he had a dead tooth that looked blue or black.
o Others say he loved eating blueberries which stained his teeth.

So, the technology was named after him because it "unites" devices just like he united
kingdoms.

Bluetooth Logo Meaning

 The Bluetooth logo combines the Nordic runes:

o ᚼ (Hagall) = H
o ᛒ (Bjarkan) = B
 These stand for Harald Bluetooth.

How Bluetooth Works

 Uses radio waves in 2.4 GHz frequency.

 Devices must go through a process called pairing to communicate.
 Once paired, data can be exchanged securely.
 Bluetooth uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) to avoid interference —
changes frequency 1600 times per second.

Network Structure: Piconet and Scatternet

Piconet

 A small network of Bluetooth devices connected together.

 One device is the Master, others are Slaves.
 A piconet can have:
o 1 master + up to 7 active slave devices
o Up to 255 inactive devices (parked)

Scatternet

 When multiple piconets are connected, they form a Scatternet.

 A device can be a slave in one piconet and a master in another.
  Bandwidth: determines the data transfer rate which is measured in Cycle Per Second
(CPS) or Hertz (Hz).
 Throughput: is the amount of data that is actually transmitted between the two computers.
It is specified in bits per second (bps). Giga bits per second (Gbps) is the fastest speed unit
per data transmission.

5. Computer Network

 Definition: Collection of interconnected computers to share data and resources.

 Origin: ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. It was the
first network developed by Vint Cerf in 1969.

6. Types of Networks

Local Area Network (LAN)

 Full Form: Local Area Network

 Meaning: LAN is a small network used to connect computers and devices within a
limited area, like a home, office, school, or building.

Range:

 Usually covers a distance of up to 1 kilometer (within a single building or campus).

How It Works:

 Devices are connected using cables (wired LAN) or Wi-Fi (wireless LAN).
 Common devices on LAN: computers, printers, routers, servers, etc.

Ownership:

 LAN is usually owned and managed by a single person or organization.

 Easy to set up, manage, and troubleshoot.
Examples:

 Computer lab in a school.

 Office computers connected to a central server.
 Home Wi-Fi network connecting phones, laptops, and printers.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Full Form: Wide Area Network

 Meaning: It is a large network that covers very big areas, even countries and
continents.

Example:

 The Internet is the biggest example of a WAN.

How It Works:

 It connects many LANs (Local Area Networks) together.

 Routers are used to connect different LANs into one WAN.
 It uses special technologies like:
o ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
o Frame Relay
o X.25

Important Points:

 WAN is not owned by one person or company.

 It is shared and managed by many organizations.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Full Form: Metropolitan Area Network

 Meaning: It is a network that covers a city or town.
Example:

 Cable TV networks in cities.

How It Works:

 It is bigger than LAN but smaller than WAN.

 Computers are connected using co-axial cables or fiber optic cables.
 Helps in sharing internet, files, printers, etc., in a city.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Full Form: Personal Area Network

 Meaning: A very small network used around one person.

Example:

 Bluetooth connection between phone and earphones.

 Wireless USB, ZigBee, Z-Wave (used in smart homes).

How It Works:

 Works only in a very short range, like a few meters.

 Usually used for personal devices like smartphones, smart watches, laptops, etc.

7. Network Devices

These devices are required to amplify the signal to restore the original strength of signal and to
provide an interface to connect multiple computers in a network. There are many types of network
devices used in networking.

1. Repeater

 A repeater is used when data is sent over a long distance and the signal becomes weak.
 It boosts/amplifies the signal to make it strong again, just like the original.
  It has two ports and connects two parts of the same network (LAN).

Example: Like a signal booster for Wi-Fi or mobile network.

2. Hub

 A hub is a basic device used to connect many computers in a network.

 It works like a multi-port repeater.
 When it gets data, it sends it to all connected computers, not just the one that needs it.

Example: Like a group message—everyone gets the message even if it was meant for one person.

3. Gateway

 A gateway connects two different types of networks protocols together.

 They are also known as protocol converters
 It converts data from one network format to another.
 The gateway is a node in a network which serves as a proxy server.
 It also works as a security guard – blocking unwanted access (like a firewall).

Example: Like a translator between two people speaking different languages.

4. Switch

 A switch is smarter than a hub.

 It connects computers in a LAN and sends data only to the computer it's meant for, not
to all.
 This makes the network faster and more efficient.

Example: Like calling only one person from your contact list, instead of calling everyone.
5. Router

 A router connects different networks (like your home LAN to the internet).
 It decides the best path for sending data packets to their destination.
 Routers also provide Wi-Fi in homes and offices.

Example: Like a traffic police guiding cars (data) to the correct road (route).

6. Bridge

 A bridge connects two separate sections of the same network.

 It reduces traffic by only sending necessary data across the network parts.
 A switch is like a multiport bridge.

Example: Like a bridge on a road that lets only needed vehicles cross over.

7. Modem (Modulator-Demodulator)

 A modem is used to connect to the internet using a telephone line.

 It changes digital data to analog (modulate) for sending, and analog to digital
(demodulate) for receiving.
 Always placed between a computer and telephone line.

Example: Like a translator converting one language into another so people can talk.

8. Network Topologies

What is Network Topology?

Network topology means the shape or layout of a computer network. It shows how computers
(called nodes) are connected to each other – physically or logically.
Types of Network Topologies :

1. Bus Topology

 All computers are connected to a single long wire (called a bus).

 Data goes through this wire and reaches the desired computer.
 Easy and cheap to set up.
 But if the main wire breaks, the whole network stops working.

Example: Like everyone standing in a line and passing messages one by one.

2. Star Topology

 All computers are connected to a central device (like a hub or switch).

 The central device controls the whole network.
 If one wire breaks, only that computer is affected, not the whole network.
 Common in offices and schools.

Example: Like people calling a leader who passes messages to others.

3. Ring Topology (Circular)

 Each computer is connected to two other computers, forming a circle.

 Data moves in one direction, like a token passing from one to the next.
 Used in networks needing high performance and speed.

Example: Like a group sitting in a circle and passing a ball one by one.

4. Mesh Topology

 Every computer is connected to every other computer directly.

 Very reliable – even if one connection fails, data can go another way.
  But it uses a lot of wires, so it’s expensive.

Example: Like everyone in a room having a separate phone line to talk to everyone else.

5. Tree Topology

 This is like a combination of star topologies arranged like a tree.

 One main node (root) connects to smaller groups.
 Good for big networks, like a company with different departments.
 Easy to expand by adding more branches.

Example: Like a family tree—one main person connected to others, who then connect to more.

Models of Computer Networking

There are two main types of computer networks based on how computers are connected and how
they share information:

1. Peer-to-Peer Network (P2P)

 In this model, all computers are equal – there is no boss or central computer.
 Each computer can share files, send data, and even act as a server or client at the same
time.
 It’s like friends helping each other directly – no one is in charge.
 Mostly used for sharing music, videos, or documents.
 Computers can be connected using USB cable, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth.

Example: Sending songs or videos from one computer to another without internet.

2. Client-Server Network

 In this model, there is a central computer called a server and other computers called
clients.
  The server stores data and manages the network.
 Clients request data or services, and the server provides them.
 This type is used in offices, banks, websites, etc.
 It is more secure, faster, and can handle many users.

Example: When you open a website, your computer (client) requests data, and the website’s
computer (server) gives you the page.

What is the OSI Model?

 OSI Model stands for Open System Interconnection Model.

 It is a 7-layer structure used to explain how data moves from one computer to another
across a network.
 Made by ISO (International Standards Organization) in 1983.
 Think of it like a step-by-step delivery system – from sender to receiver.

Seven Layers of the OSI Model (Easy Explanation)

1. Application Layer (Layer 7)

 This is the topmost layer – what the user sees.

 It provides services like web browsing, email, file transfer, etc.
 Example tasks: Login, password checking, opening websites.

Example: You open Google Chrome and type www.google.com – you’re using this layer.

2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

 This layer formats the data so both computers can understand.

 It also handles encryption/decryption and data compression.

Example: If you send a photo or video, this layer makes sure the file format is readable on both
devices.
3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

 Manages the connection (session) between two computers.

 It starts, maintains, and ends the connection.

Example: When you stay logged into a website or app – this layer keeps that session active.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

 Ensures reliable delivery of data with no loss or duplication.

 It breaks data into small parts (segments) and puts it back together on the other side.
 Uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).

Example: When downloading a file, this layer makes sure it reaches you completely and in order.

5. Network Layer (Layer 3)

 Finds the best path for data to travel from sender to receiver.
 It breaks data into packets and sends it across routers.
 Uses IP (Internet Protocol).

Example: Like a GPS for your data – finds the shortest and fastest route.

6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

 Helps in error checking and ensures correct delivery of data over a single link (e.g., from
computer to switch).
 Divides data into frames.
 Uses MAC addresses to identify devices on the network.

Example: Ensures your message doesn’t get corrupted during transfer on a LAN.
7. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

 The bottom layer of the OSI model.

 It includes cables, switches, signals, voltages, etc.
 Converts data into electrical or optical signals for transmission.

Example: The actual wires, connectors, and signals – like fiber optics or Ethernet cables.