58 Educational Psychology

Unit lI
ImportantDevelopmental Stages
and their Characteristics
Lesson -4
Infancy and Childhood
4:01 Introduction :
Of all the mammals, man is the most
and needs the longest period of immature birth
at
capable of the activities and skills of development before he is
his species. This prolonged
period of immaturity points to the necessity of education. The
human individual is a developing
sequential changes take place inorganism and progressive
an orderly pattern from
conception tilldeath. These developmental changes could be
best understood if we study them in
life, otherwise known as different phases of human
'developmental stages'.The different
aspects of human development
and environment. are affected by both heredity
Human development though gradual and continuous,
psychologists have distinguished certain
stages of
on the basis of
certain assumptions. Thesedevelopmentof
development are closely related and
of studying human integrated.
stages
The main aim
understand development
it thoroughly so
in its different stages is to
in each of the asto identify the order and pattern
developmental period.
John E. Anderson speaks of
expansionof lifespace involving the human
aspects:
development
following five inter
as
related
i.
Development
sensations.
in
synthetic understanding o
ii.
Development in the nature and types of behaviour.
 Educational Psychology 59

Development due to behaviour raising to higher and

more complex levels.
iv. Development due to planning for the future bearing
in mind the past experiences and
V. Deveiopment in the degree of self-control in
behaviour
4:02 Importance of the knowledge of Develop
mental stages to teachers
i. To know when certain behaviours appr in children
i.e. to know the moments of learning readiness in
children for any type of learning or content of
instruction. Forcing a child to learn something for
which it is maturationa'ly not ready will lead to failure
as well as the formation of a negative attitude in
general.
ii. To know when to stimulate the different aspects of
development inchildren.
iii. To prepare the children for those changes that lie
ahead in their growth.
4:03 Views of Frued and Erikson on Developmental
Stages
Associating human development with sexual development,
Frued speaks of five stages (oral, anal, phallic, latent and
genital) of psycho-sexualdevelopment Each stage is normally
outgrown: but in the case of arrested development there is
fixation at earlier stage with associated problems.
E.H. Erikson felt that social problems encountered in the
course of devetopment were more vital than biological ones
and so he has listed a progression of developmental stages
calied Psycho-Social stages in which the child encounters.a
WIder range of human relationships as he grows up and has
Specific problems to solve at each of these stages. Erikson has
Sted the following 8 psycho-social stages of development:
 Educational Psychology
62

born infant is about 50 cms in length

infancy. A new and
is rapid during grows another 25 cms by the firstyear
and 2.8 kg in weight. It during the first six months and trebled in
weight becomes doubled
the next six months.
to body changes from V4 to 1/8and the
Proportion of head infant begins using them
legs increase as the
lengths of arms and
more and more.
more rapid. The brain has its full complement
Brain growth is 80% of its adult weight by4
before birth and achieves
of cells even
years. Another 13% is attained by the age of 8 with complete
to6
development at the endof adolescence.
lungs, etc. grow
The internal organs such as digestive organs,
coordinated functioning,.
rapidly and reach a balance of effective growth and
Sensory development goes along with such bodily coordinated
hearing appears welldeveloped at infancy, though
bodily
binocular vision takes more time. In caring for the infant's
development, mother's milk as also the affectionate atmosphere
in which it is given and later nutritiousfood, cleanliness, adequate
sleep,optimum sensory stimulation and bodily activities, are all
vital.
The physicaldevelopment secured during the first three years
is strengthened and made more stable during early childhood.
During later childhood bodily development appears to slow down
a bit; body proportion approximates that of the adult. The stage of
adolescence is again marked by an accelerated rate of physical
growth alongwith the onsetof sexual maturity. This growth is often
uneven,with different rates resulting in clumsiness, awkwardness
in movements and self-consciousness. Girls and boys differ
regarding physical growth. Man reaches a greater average level in
height and weight than woman although at the age of 13 girls
surpass tboys in average weight since girls attain puberty about a
year or two earlier than boys do.
Motor activities such as head control,
sitting, standing,walking, running, climbing (allmovement of eyes
these are referred
as locomotor skills) and
manipulative skills like 'handling o
objects with dexterity', 'eye-hand co-ordination', precision of contro,
 Educational Psychology 63

speedof arm movement, am steadiness, aiming, etc. are

for personaland educational growth.The child important
the externalworld onlythrough motor makes contact with
related to intellectual, emotional and developrnent which is closely
social development.
There are individual differences in the
development. An early discovery of the problems and growth and
in physical development can help the deviations
guidance in promoting adjustments among teachers to give proper
physical and motor development promotechildren. Proper
self-help and
competence in children.
4:05:2 Importance of proper Physical
1. One's bodily characteristics
Development
generate reactions in others
as well as oneself and play a critical role in the
development of
self-concept, social role and statss. Physical inadequacies can
have various psychological effects like feeling of
insecurity. inferiority and
2.Sensory development go¢s along with bodily
The child makes contact with thé external world development.
only through his
sensory organs and hence motbr development is closely related
to intellectual,emotional and social
development of the individual.
3. Deviation in physical devlopment may result in
behaviour. maladjusted
4. Optimum physical and) motor development is
for the development of proper yocational and necessary
self-help skills,
thus resulting in competency and functional independence in
children.
5.The capacity to learn very much depends upon the physical
growth and development of the individual.
6. Mental development is dependenton physical health.
Ihus physical development is important for the individual and
1S interrelated with other aspects of development - intellectual,
emotional, social and moral.
$:05:3 Role of school in the physical Development of
children
Ahealthy home and school environment with provision of
 Educational Psychology
64

good food andopportunities for games and activities, supported

by aprogramme of medical check up and follow up actions ars
2ssential for fostering the proper physical development of pupil,.
The use of growth norms willoften indicate lines of development
and anyserious deviation from the norms may be attended to.
Knowledge of personal and environmental hygiene should form
art of schoolcurriculum. The school's equiprment and programmes
of recreation, and physical education must be adopted to
differences in the levels of physical maturity of learners. The greater
restlessness of small children in primary grades should be
accommodated by having shorter school days, punctuated with
frequent recesses. Teachers should be aware of the early and late
bloomers and help in their adjustment. To sum up, the school does
not play such an important role in physicaldevelopment of child as
it does in its intellectual development. However, the
teacher's
understanding of child and adolescent behaviour will be incomplete
without an adequate knowledge of the patterns and
nature of
physical development during the developmental stages.
4:06
Intellectual Development
4:06;1 Intellectual Development from Infancy to
Adolescence
Intellectual development is also referred to as
development. Intelectual cognitive
in what are called development
cognitive
refers to the gradual growth
abilities (ability to attend, perceive, to
discover, to recognise, to imagine,to judge, to conceptualise, to
remember, to learn, to reason, to take decisions,
and to indulge in to solve problems
in meaningful speech) and also to
knowledge and adjustment to consequent growth
development is influenced by environment. Cognitive
nutritional,
factors. emotional and social
The mental powers of the
new
undeveloped; its brain centres are stillborn infant are immature and
at birth is
practically maturing and its knowledge
nil. But even early,
individual differences in the mental observers can notice
hereditary powers of infants due to
stimulifromdifferences. The intant's first
the outside world. Its intellectual response is to
intellectual activities broaden as
 Educational Psychology 65

its power of imagery grow and powers of retention of past sensory

oxDeriences and their recall develop. Imagination which comes to
the torefront byabout the age of three, expresses itself through
nlay activities and it also serves as a means of intellectual
development. Language (mother tongue) helps in preserving as
well as fostering intellectualgrowth whiçh continues toaccelerate
as children develop the ability to judge, to reason and to solve
problems, starting from the concrete level andgoing towards the
abstract. Creativity helps in divergent thinking, leading to novel
inteliectual products and practices. Psychologists like Jean Piaget
point out that child's cognitive processes are not abridged or
simplified versions of adult processes but are qualitatively
different, though certain common invariants are also there. Broadly
speaking. cognitive development of children can be fostered by a
stimulating home and school environment with a lot of scope for
free selfactivity and opportunities for varied sensory experiences.
4:06:2 Factors affecting Mental Growth and
Development
Mental growth and development is controlled by both the
hereditary andenvironmental factors.What an individual gets from
his ancestral stock through his immediate parents at the timne of
Conception in terms of mental traits or characteristics and mental
apparatus is in fact a valuable asset to his future mental growth
and development. But the environment which he gets afterwards
for the development of those innate abilities is no less significant.
The social and cultural experiences, learning opportunities and
education which he avails for the development process as he
advances in age,contribute significantly towards his mental growth
and development. Maturation and learning are responsible for
Controtling the process of mental growth and development.
Maturation helps in achieving physical growth and development
which in turn affects the process of mental growth and
development.
4:07 Emotional Development
4:07:1. Concept of Emotion
Emotion has been defined as stirred up or agitated
state of
66 Educational Psychology

an organism, both in body and mind. Emotion can be

comprehensively defined as "a complex state involvina
heightened perception of an object or situation, widespread
bodily changes, an appraisal of felt attraction or repulsion,
and behaviour organised for approach or withdrawal".The
urge to action is one of the strongest subjective experiences of
emotion.

According to McDougall, all human emotions are derived

from instincts. Instinctive behaviour, in his opinion, has three parts:
i. Cognition (knowledge)
i. Affection (feelingor experiencing emotion)
i. Conation (doing or striving).
When a child sees a dog, barkingand running towards him,
he experiences an instinctive behaviour and
undergoes the above
three processes. Firstly, he sees the dog,secondly,
the emotion of fear, and thirdly, he starts he experiences
running. Every emotion is
accompanied by some instinctive behaviour. For example, the
emotion of fear is associated with flight,
wonder with curiosity, etc. When a basic amusement with laughter,
need is satisfied or
challenged the emotions play their part.
4:07:2 Characteristics of Emotion
1) Emotions are
prevalent in every living organism.
2) They are present in all
aroused in the young as well asstages
of development and can be
in the old.
3) Emotions differ
from person to person.
4) Same emotions can
be aroused by a
stimuli. number of different
5) An emotion once
behindan emotionalmood. aroused tends to persist and leaves
6)Emotions have the
caused by rebuking by thequality
boss is
of
displacement,e.g. the anger
wife at home. transferred in quarrelling
with
7) One emotion can give
birth to anumber of similaremotions.
8)Upsurge of emotion
affect reasoning and thinking.
 Educational Psychology 67

4:07:3 Emotion Differentiated from Feeling' and

Sensation
Sensations are connected with sense organs and are weak
to strong. But feelings are characterised by pleasantness or
unpleasantness andare notconfined toany sense organ. Feelings
affect the complete individual and mild experiences present as
background behind all actions and responses. But emotions are
severe and intense experiences. They involve exaggerated feeling
tone but unlike ordinary simple feelings, they are emergency
reactionsand are not always present as aspects of consciousness.
4:07:4 Different Categories of Emotions
Harold Scholosberg speaks of three basic dimensions of
emotions : () Pleasantness- Unpleasantness, (ii) Attention -
rejection and (ii) Level of activation (sleep-tension). Others add
fourth dimension to the above three -dégree of complexity. When
these four bipolar dimensions areimposed upon the possible
human emotional states, we get several categories of emotions.
a) Primary goal oriented emotions (anger, joy, fear and
grief, also called primaryor basic emotions).
b) Emotions triggered by sensory simulation (pain,
disgust anddelight).
c) Emotions pertaining to self-appraisaland related to
one's level of aspiration (pride, shame and guilt).
d) Emotions related toothers (love, envy and pity)
e) Appreciative emotions (wonder and awe).
pattern of
All these increasingly varied and differentiated
emotional expressions are gradually evolved in the course of
development and in the light of experience and learning from the
the
initial single generalised emotional response of excitement of
new born infant.
4:07:5 Factors Affecting Emotional Development
Factors affecting emotionaldevelopment are :
a) Family atmosphere : A cordial atmosphere at home
develops positive emotions in children whereas conflicts, fights
 Educational Psychology
68

emotions. The
and tensions in the family give rise to negative
members of the
treatment given to the children by parents and
family influences their emotionaldevelopment. Thesize of the family
the order of birth, socio-economic status of the family, parental
attitude-are all deciding factors in the emotional make up of the
child.

b)School atmosphere and teachers :The attitude of the

teachers towards students, the physcial facilities provided in the
school, the methods of teaching, organisation of co-curricular
activities-all influence the emotional development in children.
c) Health and physicaldevelopment : Any deficiency in
physical health creates emotional problems. Weak children,
suffering from constant illness are more emotionally upset than
other healthy children. The normal functioning of the glands is very
importantfor the balanced emotional deveiopment.
d) Intelligence :One manifestation of intelligence is theability
to adaptand make adjustments, And intelligent child willnormally
be emotionally well-developed.
e) Community : Social agencies like the community and
society, of which an individual is a member, exert significant
influence over the emotional set up of the child. Many good or bad
things related to the emotional behaviour of an individual can be
acquired through the impact of neighbourhood and society.
In short, it can be said that
personal factors like health,
intelligence, etc. and social factórs like
major influence in shaping the emotional family, school, etc. exert
4:07:6 Importance of Emhotional
development of children.
Development
Emotions dominate our lives.They lend
our lives, which colour and variety to
otherwise
Qut of which all motivation would be dull. Theyare the basic stutt
to act in some way or arises. To be emotional is to be moved
other.
but often serve as goals ofEmotions not only impel us to action
avoiding unpleasant ends seem action; seeking pleasant acts and
Many act•ons which on surface to guide manyhuman activities.
appear to stem from reasoning, o
analysis stem to arise from emotions.
Success in life's endeavours
 Educational Psychology 69

does not depend on one's intelligence only. One's emotional

maturity also plays a significant part in determining whether one's
ventures are successtul or not. Emotions enter into the creative
production of arts like poetry, music, dance, etc. and the
appreciation of such productions equally involve emotiona!
responses on the part of the reader, hearer and observer. Emotions
appear to be linked with the production of certain psycho-somatic
disorders like stomatch ulcers,skin eruptions,respiratory disorders,
muscular pains, headaches, etc.
In the classroom situation, emotions appear to be at the back
of social relationship between teacher and pupils as wel as between
pupil and pupil and favOurable teacher-pupilemotional responses
get transferred to the subject which the teacher handles resulting
in better achievement. The emotiornal atmosphere in the classroom
is a central factor in facilitating o retarding pupil-learning and it
constitutes a factor in providing job satisfaction to the teacher.
The aim of education is the development of the all round
personality of the individual. Abalanced emotional development
contributes significantly to the development of integrated,
harmonious personality developrhent of the individual.
4:07:7 Emotional Develbpment from Infancy to
Adolescence
The new born infant has a single generalised emotional
response of excitement only and out of this gradually evolves
increasingdifferentiated patterns of emotionalexpression over the
COurse of development. In about 6 months, the child can express
the three primary emotions as described by Watson:
thwarting of appetites and restricting the free bodily
movements of the infant naturally makes it angry:
loud, harsh sound and sudden ioss of support evokes
fear;
Satisfactionof appetites,petting and fondling produces
love and joy.
 Educational Psychology
70

Social factors, imitation and learning lead to a variety of

emotional reactions andexpressions and by early childhood most
of the common emotions-affection, elation, joy, anger, disgust.
jealousy, fear, sympathy, etc. are clearly discernible.
Pre-school children, because of their immaturity and lack of
control, tend to express their emotions freely and openly. Angry
outbursts, which are seen frequently, are caused by fatigue, hunger
or needless adult interference. As they are often exposed to many
strange situations, they exhibit many fears and their imagination
produces a variety of irrational fears also in such children. Jealousy
is equally common at this stage. Primary grade children (between
6 to 9 years) are often alert to the feelings of others; butthey often
hurt the feelings of other children. They are very sensitive to criticism
and need praise and recognition. After the age of 9, conflict between
group codes of the peers and the adult rules oftn cause emotional
difficulties.
At the endof infancy, changes occur in the mode ofexpression
of emotional reaction. For example small infants express their
emotionof anger through crying. At the age 3,on becoming angry,
infants start beating or biting others. At the age of 4, they shoW
their anger by insubordination. At the age of 6. they vent their
anger
through verbal abuses. Such patterns of change in emotional
reactions exhibited by children could be noticed in other emotions
also.

According to Frued there seems to be a twin faceted

behaviour of individuals during infancyand early childhood.emotional
children display much affection towards their mother. Male
have affection towards their father, they also Though they
hatred towards him, as they feel father has morehave jealousy and
the mother, whom they lOve most (This is concessions with
known as Oedipus
complex) Similarly in girls appear the opposing emotions of love
andhatred simultaneously towards their
Electra complex). If such emotional mother. (This is known as
complexes are intense and
persist for long, they may aftect the personality
the individuals later on. characteristics of
 Educational Psychology 69

does not depend on one's intelligence only. One's emotional

maturity also plays a significant part in determining whether one's
ventures are successtul or not. Emotions enter into the creative
production of arts like poetry, music, dance, etc. and the
appreciation of such productions equally involve emotionaB
responseson the part of the reader, hearer and observer. Ermotions
avpear to be linked with the production of certain psycho-sornatic
disorders like stomatch ulcers, skin eruptions, respiratory disorders,
muscularpains, headaches,etc.
In the classroom situation, emotions appear to be at the back
of socialrelationship between teacher and pupils as well as between
pupil and pupiland favourable teacher-pupilemotional responses
get transferred to the subject which the teacher handles resulting
inbetter achievement. The emotioral atmosphere in the classroom
is a central factor in facilitating o retarding pupil-iearning and it
constitutes a factor in providing job satisfaction to the teacher.
The aim of education is the development of the all round
personality of the individual. A balanced emotional development
contributes significantly to the development of integrated,
harmonious personality development of the individual.
4:07:7 Emotional Develbpment fromn Infancy to
Adolescence
emotional
The new born infant has a single generalised evolves
gradually
response of excitement only and out of this
expression over the
increasingdifferentiated patterns of emotional
of developrnent. In about 6 months, the child can express
course
primary emotions as described by Watson:
thethree
the free bodily
thwarting of appetites and restricting
makes itangry;
movements of the infantnaturally
harsh sound and sudden loss of supportevokes
loud,
fear;
appetites,peting and fondling produces
Satisfaction of
love and joy.
 70 Educational Psychology

Social factors, imitation and learning lead to a variety of

emotional reactions and expressions and by early childhood most
of the common emotions-affection, elation, joy, anger, disgust.
jealousy, fear, sympathy, etc. are clearly discernible.
Pre-school children, because of their immaturity and lack of
control, tend to express their emotions freely and openly. Angry
outbursts, which are seen frequently, are caused by fatigue, hunger
or needless adult interference. As theyare often
exposed to many
strange situations, they exhibit many fears and their
imagination
produces a variety of irrational fears also in such children.
is equally common atthis stage. Primary Jealousy
to 9 years)are often alert to the feelingsgrade children (between
of others; but theyoften
hurt the feelings of other children. They are very
and need praise and recognition. Afterthe age sensitive to criticism
group codes of the peers and the adult rules of9,conflict between
difficulties. oftn cause emotional
At the end of infancy,
of emotional changes occur in the mode of expression
reaction. For example small infants
emotion anger through crying. At the age 3,on express their
of
infants start beatingor bitingothers. At
the age
becoming angry,
of 4. they show
their anger by
through verbalinsubordination. At the age of 6. they vent
abuses. Such patterns of change in their anger
reactions exhibited by children could be
also. noticed inother emotional
emotions
According to Frued there seems to be a twin
behaviour ofindividuals during infancy and faceted emotional
children display much affection early childhood. Male
have affection towards their towards their mother.
father,
hatred towards him, as they feel they also have Thoughthey
father
the mother, whom they love most has more Concessions jealousy with
and

complex) Similarly in girls appear the(This is known as Oedipus

and hatred sirmultaneously
towards theiropposing
mother. emotions of love
Electra complex). If such emotional (This known
is as
persist for long, they may
the individuals later on.
affect the complexes areintense and
personality characteristics of
70 Educational Psychology

Social factors, imitation and learning lead to a variety of

o
emotional reactions and expressions and by early childhood most
of the common emotions-affection, elation, joy, anger,
jealousy. fear, sympathy, etc. are clearly discernible. disgust,
Pre-school children, because of their immaturity and lack of
control, tend to express their emotions freely and openly. Anary
outbursts, which are seen frequently, are caused by fatigue, hunger
or needless adult interference. As they are often
expoOsed to many
strange situations, they exhibit many fears and their imagination
produces avariety of irrational fears also in such children. Jealousy
is equally common at this stage. Primary grade
6to 9 years) are often alert to the children (between
feelings of others; but they often
hurt the feelings of other children. They are
and need praise and recognition. After the very sensitive to criticism
group codes of the peers and the adult rules age of9, conflict between
difficulties. often cause emotional
At the endof infancy,
changes occur in the mode of
of emotional
reaction. For example small infants expression
emotion of anger through crying.At the age 3, express their
infants start beating or biting on becoming angry,
their anger by others. At the age of 4, they show
insubordination.
through verbal abuses. SuchAtthe age of 6.they vent their anger
reactions exhibited patterns of change in emotional
by children could
also. be noticed in other
emotions
According to Frued there
seems to be a twin
behaviour of
individuals
children display during infancy and faceted emotional
much affection early childhood. Male
have afection towards their towards their
hatred towards him, as they feelfather, they also mother. Though they
father has have jealousy with
and
most (This ismore
the mother, whom they love
complex) Similarly in girls appear the concessions
knownas
and hatred
sirmultaneously towards their opposing emotionsOedipus
of love
Electra complex). If such emotional mother. (This is
persist for long, they may affect the complexes are known andas
the individuals later on. personality intense
characteristics of
 Educational Psychology 71

4:07:8 Educating the emotions of pupils

One of the major objectives of any good schermes of
is to train for emotional control and education
modify certain emotions, for
the welfare of the individual and society.
Parents and
should plan for proper emotionaldevelopment in childrenteachers
and this
should start right from babyhood. Proper emotional
prepares the individual to appreciate the pleasurabledevelopment
emotionsand to cope up with unpleasant emotions ina aspects of
manner. constructive
Forchildren, their environment should be
made pleasant as
far as possible, However the child should also be made
to learn
howto tolerate frustrations so that habits of
aggression may not
develop. Adolescents should be taught, through percept, example
and opportunities for interesting and constructive activity, not to
blowup but express their emotions in a socially acceptable way.
They should be trained to assess a situation critically before
responding to it emotionally like children. They should be taught to
ignore many stimuli to which they would have reacted emotionally
earlier and should be given practice to have stability in emotional
reaction and swing from one to another extreme. Emotional
maturity is the goal of emotional development.
The methods that could be employed in schools for emotional
development of children are:
i. Repression or inhibition : The undesirable emotional
behaviour of the child is checked by imposing restrictions. Rules
and regulations arevery strictly imp0sed and the child is always
required to express his emotions in socially approved ways.
.Another methodof exercising control over the emotions is
lo keep the child busy with some occupation or other involVing
Constructive activities. It is essential to have provisions for co
Curricular and leísure time activities for the balanced emotional
development of the children.
MI. Redirection and sublimation :Emotions are redirected
Or sublimated to result in a sociallv desirable one. In redirection,
the direction of flow of the emotion is changed. But in sublimation
72 Educational Psychology

the very emotion is made to change. As far as the method of

controlling emotions is concerned, sublimation serves the best
purpose.
iv. Catharsis : By providing a proper outlet for emotional
expression,the tension which is created by certain conditions can
be removed. To listen patiently to the verbal expression of an
individual under emotion is the simple catharsis process. The
opportunity for self-expression in the form of co-curricular activities,
participation in celebrations and festivals provide means for the
catharsis of emotional energy.
4:07:9 Characteristics of Emotional Maturity
An emotionaly mature person will possess the foliowing
characteristics:
1) He is able to control his emotions; sudden
inappropriate emotional outbursts are rarely found.
2) Almost al! emotions can be distinctly seen in him and
their patternof expression can be easily recognised.
3) He expresses his emotions in a socially desirable way.
4) He is guided more by his intellect than his
emotions.
5) He never tries to justify himself for his
undersirabie or
improper conduct.
6) He thinks for others and is keen to
maintain social
relationship.
7) He exercises his
emotions at the proper time, in the
proper place.
8) Aperson havingemotional
shift from one emotion to maturity shows no sudden
another.
9) Emotionally mature person has a
and does not indulge in feeling ofpositive self-concept
A happy home and school life, self-pity.
andteachers who provide for the with understanding parents
needs of security andaffection andchild's
who
psychological and social
enable it to have a sense of also accept the child and
tothe development of achievermeni will be contributingmuch
emotional maturity in children.There shouBd
 Educational Psychology 73

be no suppression of emotions; they should be sublimated through

constructive activities and here sports, games, dramatics and
similar co-curricular activities are of great value.
4:08 Social Development
4:08:1 Meaning of "Social Development"
Social development mearns acquisition of the ability to behave
inaccordance with social expectations. It has been defined as the
process by which an individual born with potentials of enormously
wide range, is led to developactual behaviour which is contined
within the much narrower range of what is customary and
acceptabie according to the standards of his group.
Thus the social development of the child has two aspects :
i. the individual learns the particular ways of his society
- this is known as socialisation;
ii. the individualprogressively expands his social horizon.
He learns to include more and more people in his
group, in which he feels at home and for which he will
make sacrifices.
According to Hurlock, social development means the attaining
of maturity in social relationships. It means the process of learning
to conform to group standards, morals and traditions and becoming
imbued with a sense of oneness, inter-communications and
COoperation. This involves the development of new type of
Dehavicur, a change in interests, and the choice of rew type of
friends.
4:08:2 Social Development from infancy to
Adolescence
Social development takes place gradually. Being a social
person is not innate: it must be learned. The new born infant exhibits
CUe or no social activity. It is concerned with its satisfaction of
boally needs. At birth it is nongregancus and the '-feeling' alone
dppears to be dorminant. Even t ! weeke, the infant stares at
es cloOsely and a few weeks intuf lants to be picked up. The
ist significant attachment behaviour of the infant is
recognitionof
 74 Educational Psychology

its mother and gradually this social interaction circle widens t

include other members of the family and the 'we-feeling' emergee
The early play activities of very young children is solitary pla.
later on it becomes paralleiplay (each child in a group playing in
its own way). Only by about the age of two, the child shows a
desire to cooperate with others in group plays. Thus early childhood
is pre-gangstage of social development but childhood is the gang
stage, when playmates have an active role in accelerating social
development. No sex differences is felt at this stage. The child is
assimilating socializing experiences through direct imitation of the
patterns ofother children and by spontaneous reaction to things
which they do orto situations they create. Social behaviours that
are developed during childhood are rivalry, aggression, co
operation, sympathy, social approval and certain social prejudices
imbibed from adults. Notions of proper and improper social
behaviour gradually develop.
Later childhood (8-12) is marked by maximum
social
adjustment in the changeable and variable social world marking a
level of pseudo maturity. Though the child
home now a considerable amount of time, stays away from its
the
paternal affection continues to be undiminished, importance of
Adolescence is marked by seX consciousness in social
relations. Adolescents of the different sexes try to
each other. But relations mutually attract
defined during early between boys and girlsare not very well
embarrassment adolescences
in the behaviour of
resulting in a lot of
play a vital part in adolescent youth.Popularity or unpopularity
insight, socialcompetence, socialadjustment. Self-assertiveness, social
areail seen emerging during discrimination or
later adolescence and snobbishness
Socialpatterns ultimatelyadult
in socialisation develop. Adolescent gangs
and peer group culture is are also powerful factors
Sometimes lead to antisocialor delinquent dominant.if This may
andproperly sublimated. behaviour, not guided
Developmental psychologists have listed
characteristicsof children atdifferent stages of certain social
school children have one or two friends but development.Pre
change their friends
 Educational Psychology 75

easilv as they are socially flexible. Play groups at this stage are
smalland loosely organised. Quarrels are frequent but are of short
duration and quickly forgotten. Dramatic play is frequent and
awareness of sex roles begins at this stage.
Primary class children appear to be more selective in their
choice of friends and like organised games; quarrels are still
frequent and words are more often used than physical aggression.
Competition and boastingare often seeriand boys and girls show
different interests, both in work and play.
During elementary grades, the gang influence becomes
powerful. Interests of boys and girls become more divergent. Team
games are more popular.
Duringadolescence, peer group dominance becomes more
pronounced and concern for opposite sex increases. At the end of
adolescence, adult social patterns come out.
4:08:3 Social Maturity and its Characteristics
Social maturity is the final expected outcome of social
development and socialization.Certain characteristics of social
maturity are listed by psychologists.The socially mature person
i. has a sense of his proper place and role as a member
of the social group. He is willing and able to orient
himself in the various activities and customs of the
group.
ii. is able. to assume a reasonable amount of
responsibility, to adjust himself to the inevitable
limitationand restrictions of the community life.
ii. can be original and yet conform to the broad pattern
of his social environment.
iv, evaluates social problems not from a purely selfish
point of view but has regard to the rights and opinions
of others.
V. acceptsresponsibility for his actions, does not indulge
in self-pitying
vi. is relatively free from devastating emotions and is able
to release his emotions in socially acceptable
behaviour patterns.
76 Educational Psychology

vi. has a realistic level of aspiration and has a sound moral

and social code that saves him from conflicts and
feelings of guilt.
vi. has many friends and contributes to socialwelfare
ix. has a realistic self-concept, being conscious of his
assets andlimitations.
x. is relatively secure andso open to newexperiences
which contribute to his continuous development.
In short, co-operation, pleasing manners, considerations for others,
positive and optimistic outiook on life and enotional maturity are
signs of socially mature individual.
4:09 Discipline and its Promotion
Discipline is an important aspect of social growth.Discipline
is orderiy conduct based on self-control. The aim of
discipline should
be to train in such behaviour as a factor in
promoting
and group welfare rather than in just restricting individualindividual
freedom.
Discipline, mentai health and pupil self-realisation are interrelated.
Traditional teachers equated discipline with unquestionsd
obedience onthe nart of pupils. External controls like rewards and
punishments were emphasized in the maintenance of discipiine.
Now such a view has changed.
Real discipline is a state of the mind of
from an inner conviction that such pupils which arise
as wellas for others in society. behaviour is good for themselves
stem from within. Order is implied in discipline but
4:09:1 Promoting 'discipline' in
.
The grovwth of discipline in
children :
guidanceand supportin self d1rected pupits needs considerable
ii. Indiscipline in the activities.
insecurity and irresponsibitityschools today reflects the sense ol
society. Irrelevance of prevalent inmany segments ofour
disinterest and frustration educalional
in the youth. curriculum
So
also breeds
made realistic, interesting and education should be
vocation-oriented.
 Educational Psychology 77

ii. Stress ona variety of

co-curricular activities,a
of counselling and guidance, opportunities for socialprogramme
activities, freedom coupled with responsibilities, goodand moral
tradition of the schooland religiousand moral education bytone and
who themselves exemplify the traits they stress in their teachers
will help in inculcating a feeling of real discipline in instructions
pupils.
4:10 Moral Development in Children
Morality and sociality appear to be interrelated and a
socialised individual in the real sense of the term is a person with
good moral character. Many a social trait forms the basis of moral
values and ethics in behaviour. Education is equally
with ethicalvalues and moraleducation is an aspect of concerned
education.
Psychologists mention 4stages in the moraldevelopment in
children. Inthe first stage,known as 'PrudentialStage' childrern's
behaviour regulated by means of pleasure and pain. Children
is
learn those behaviours that are rewarded and
avoid those which
are punished. The second stage is the
which children follow the directions of his'Authoritarian
Stage' in
elders likeparents and
teachers who have dominating influence over the children. The
third one is the 'Social stage' in which children's
behaviour is
governed by the social acceptance or rejection. Children try to
behave in conformity with social expectations. The level of moral
development in most of us get stagnatedat this stage.The highest
stage of moral development is the Personal Stage' in which an
individual's behaviour is influenced by his conviction of high morals
and ethics. Even if the whole society
opposes him he
steadfast in his action, if he thinks his action is highly ethicalwill be
i.e. he
will be courageous in his convictions.
Jean Piaget and Laurence Kohlberg have put forward a
development theory of morality. Piaget distinguishes between
"moralrealism' and 'moral relativism'. Young children are
realists who interpret moral rules and look at the material moral
the actions and their magnitude, ignoring the side of
Suppose achild is asked to pass moral judgementsintentions of the acts.
the first case a child breaks two tea cups on two acts. In
while
Stealthily the sweets kept over the cup board attempting to reach
and in the second
78 Educational Psychology

case a servant maid breaks due 4 tea cups du to carelessness

while serving tea to the visitingguests. The child will hold the servant
maid as more guilty than the stealing child because of the
magnitude of the act i.e. breaking more number of cups.
Only by about 11-12 years, do children become capable of
moral relativism. They are now capable to decentre and think of
several qualities at once and they have overcome their ego
centricism by becoming aware that other people may have different
points of view. Consequently they take into account motives and
circumstances in making moral judgements. After the age of 12
childreh behave in a conciliatory and forgiving way.
Kohlberg's theory of moraldevelopment is based on Piaget's
general theory of cognitive development (Kohlberg believes that
moral development, like cognitive growth takes place through
'assimilation' and 'accommodation') He lay emphasis on the
significance of looking at things from other's point of view (role
taking). There are three levels of moral development.
Inlevel 1,the preconventional level, Kohlberg regards it is
based on the desire to avoid punishment and gain rewards. At
level 1 there is no internalization of moral standards. At
level 2, the
conventional level, although the child identifies with his parents
and conforms to what they regard as right and
motive to conform rather than ethical standards wrong, that
it is the
internalized. It is only at level 3, the postconventionalhave been
level, that
moral judgement is rational and
controlled by an internalized ethical internalized and that conduct is
code and is relatively
independent of the approval or castigation of others. At this level,
moral conflict is resolved in terms of
broad ethical principles, and
violating these principles results in guilt and
Like Piaget, Kohlberg also
speaks of
self-condemnation.
of moral growth; but
mere maturation as the basis
the higher levels of maturation may not help one to reacn
morality. The individual must
experiences that specifically "confront him with more undergo lte
dilemmas and with the realiies of the complex moral
social
lives".These points are of relevance in planningsystem in which he
education. Kohlberg advOcates the a course of moral
existence of some basic or
 Educational Psychology 79

universal moral values as all normal children everywhere go through

the same stages of cognitive development and interact socially in
essentialy the same ways.