Evolution – Detailed Notes
1. Introduction
• Definition: Evolution is the gradual change in the heritable characteristics of
biological populations over successive generations.
• Central idea: All life forms share a common ancestor, and diversity arises through
modification over time.
• Key aspects:
o Origin of life (abiogenesis vs. biogenesis)
o Patterns of evolution (divergent, convergent, parallel)
o Mechanisms of evolution (variation, natural selection, genetic drift, gene
flow, mutation)
2. Origin of Life
2.1 Early Theories
1. Special Creation Theory (Religious belief): Life created by supernatural power,
immutable.
2. Spontaneous Generation Theory: Life originated spontaneously from non-living
matter (disproved by Louis Pasteur).
3. Biogenesis: Life comes from pre-existing life (proved by Redi and Pasteur).
2.2 Modern Theory (Oparin–Haldane Hypothesis)
• Life originated from simple inorganic molecules under reducing atmosphere (H₂,
CH₄, NH₃, water vapour, no free O₂).
• Energy sources: UV radiation, lightning, volcanic heat.
• Chemical evolution:
1. Formation of simple molecules → organic monomers (amino acids, sugars,
nucleotides)
2. Polymerization → proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids
3. Aggregation → coacervates / protobionts
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules (RNA → DNA → protein world)
Miller–Urey Experiment (1953): Simulated early Earth conditions, produced amino acids
from methane, ammonia, water, hydrogen.
3. Geological Time Scale (GTS)
• Precambrian: Origin of life, prokaryotes, simple eukaryotes.
• Paleozoic: Cambrian explosion, fishes, amphibians.
• Mesozoic: Age of reptiles (dinosaurs), first birds, mammals.
• Cenozoic: Age of mammals, humans.
4. Evidence for Evolution
4.1 Morphological & Anatomical Evidence
• Homologous structures: Similar origin, different function (forelimbs of humans,
whales, bats) → Divergent evolution.
• Analogous structures: Different origin, similar function (wings of insects & bats) →
Convergent evolution.
• Vestigial organs: Reduced/unused structures (appendix, nictitating membrane).
4.2 Embryological Evidence
• Early embryos of vertebrates show similarities (gill slits, tail) → common ancestry
(von Baer’s law).
4.3 Paleontological Evidence
• Fossils show transitional forms (e.g., Archaeopteryx – bird + reptile features).
4.4 Biochemical Evidence
• Similar DNA, proteins (cytochrome c), enzymes across species indicate shared
ancestry.
4.5 Biogeographical Evidence
• Distribution of species consistent with plate tectonics and continental drift (Darwin’s
finches in Galápagos).
5. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
1. Overproduction: Organisms produce more offspring than survive.
2. Variation: Individuals show differences (heritable).
3. Struggle for existence: Competition for resources.
4. Survival of the fittest: Best-adapted survive & reproduce.
5. Descent with modification: Over generations, new species arise.
6. Modern Synthetic Theory (Neo-Darwinism)
• Combines Darwin’s natural selection with Mendelian genetics, population genetics,
and molecular biology.
• Key forces:
1. Genetic variation (mutation, recombination)
2. Natural selection
3. Gene flow
4. Genetic drift
5. Isolation (geographical, reproductive)
7. Mechanisms of Evolution
7.1 Variation
• Mutation: Sudden heritable change in DNA.
• Recombination: Crossing over, independent assortment.
• Gene flow: Movement of alleles between populations.
• Genetic drift: Random change in allele frequency (strong in small populations).
o Founder effect: Few individuals colonize a new area.
o Bottleneck effect: Sudden reduction in population size.
7.2 Hardy–Weinberg Principle
• Allele frequencies in a population remain constant if:
o No mutation
o No migration
o No natural selection
o Random mating
o Large population size
• Equation:
p2+2pq+q2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1p2+2pq+q2=1
Where:
ppp = frequency of dominant allele
qqq = frequency of recessive allele
8. Speciation
• Allopatric: Geographical isolation → reproductive isolation → new species.
• Sympatric: No geographical barrier; reproductive isolation due to ecological or
genetic differences.
9. Human Evolution
• Origin from primate ancestors (~15 mya).
• Timeline:
1. Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus (~15–14 mya)
2. Australopithecus (~4 mya) – bipedal, ape-like face.
3. Homo habilis (~2 mya) – first tool maker.
4. Homo erectus (~1.5 mya) – upright posture, fire use.
5. Neanderthals (~1,00,000–40,000 years ago) – large brain, buried dead.
6. Homo sapiens (~75,000–10,000 years ago) – agriculture, settlements.
7. Modern humans (~40,000 years ago).
10. Patterns of Evolution
• Divergent: Common ancestor → different adaptations (adaptive radiation; Darwin’s
finches).
• Convergent: Different ancestors → similar adaptations.
• Parallel: Similar evolutionary changes in related species in similar environments.
• Co-evolution: Two species evolve in response to each other (flower
