Class 12 Biology – Chapter 7: Evolution
(NCERT-Based Study Material)
1. Introduction to Evolution
Biological evolution refers to the gradual changes in living organisms over generations. It
explains the origin of diversity of life from simpler to more complex forms. Evolution is
supported by evidences from paleontology, embryology, morphology, molecular biology,
etc.
2. Origin of Life
- Big Bang Theory: Universe originated ~20 billion years ago from a massive explosion.
- Earth formed ~4.5 billion years ago.
- Early Earth had a reducing atmosphere (no oxygen), with gases like CH₄, NH₃, H₂, and
water vapour.
Miller-Urey Experiment (1953):
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey recreated early Earth conditions in a lab: gases (CH₄,
NH₃, H₂, and water vapour), high temperature (800°C), and electric sparks. After a
week, amino acids were formed, proving the chemical origin of life.
3. Evolution of Life Forms
Life began with prokaryotes (~3.5 billion years ago), evolved into eukaryotes, unicellular
organisms, and later into multicellular organisms. Some developed photosynthesis →
oxygen released → aerobic respiration evolved.
Summary Table: Evolution of Life
Stage Description
Prokaryotes First simple cells, anaerobic (~3.5 bya)
Photosynthetic Bacteria Released oxygen, changed atmosphere
Eukaryotes Nucleus, membrane-bound organelles
(~2.0 bya)
Multicellular Organisms Differentiation and complexity (~1.0 bya)
Invertebrates Dominated early oceans
Vertebrates and Land Plants ~400 million years ago
Amphibians First vertebrates on land
Reptiles Dominated during Mesozoic era
Mammals Appeared ~200 million years ago
Humans Modern humans ~15,000 years ago
4. Evidences for Evolution
Evidences for evolution come from various fields like paleontology, anatomy,
embryology, and molecular biology.
Summary Table: Evidences for Evolution
Type of Evidence Example Significance
Paleontological Fossils of Archaeopteryx Link between reptiles and
birds
Anatomical (Homologous) Forelimbs of whale, bat, Common ancestry
and human (divergent evolution)
Anatomical (Analogous) Wings of birds and insects Different ancestry, same
function (convergent
evolution)
Embryological Similar embryos of Common ancestry
vertebrates
Molecular DNA similarities between Biochemical evidence of
humans and apes evolution
Industrial Melanism Peppered moth in England Natural selection in
response to pollution
5. Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive radiation refers to the process where organisms diversify rapidly into a
multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new
resources available.
Example: Darwin’s Finches (Galapagos Islands)
Common Ancestor → 14 species of finches with different beak structures → Adapted to
specific diets:
- Insectivorous finches – Pointed beaks
- Seed-eating finches – Stout beaks
- Woodpecker-like finches – Strong curved beaks
6. Mechanism of Evolution
The mechanisms of evolution are processes that change genetic makeup of populations
over time. These include:
1. Mutation – Sudden changes in DNA.
2. Natural Selection – Fittest survive and reproduce.
3. Genetic Drift – Random change in allele frequencies in small populations.
4. Gene Flow – Movement of genes between populations.
5. Reproductive Isolation – Prevention of gene flow between populations, leading to
speciation.
Flowchart: Mechanisms of Evolution (Described Below)
Genetic Variation → Mutation / Recombination / Gene Flow → Natural Selection /
Genetic Drift → Changes in Allele Frequency → Evolution
7. Hardy-Weinberg Principle
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle states that allele frequencies in a population remain
constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences.
Equation: p² + 2pq + q² = 1
Where:
- p = frequency of dominant allele (A)
- q = frequency of recessive allele (a)
- p² = frequency of AA (homozygous dominant)
- 2pq = frequency of Aa (heterozygous)
- q² = frequency of aa (homozygous recessive)
Example:
If 9% of a population is homozygous recessive (aa), then:
q² = 0.09 → q = 0.3 → p = 0.7
- Frequency of AA (p²) = 0.49
- Frequency of Aa (2pq) = 0.42
- Frequency of aa (q²) = 0.09
8. Origin and Evolution of Man
Humans evolved from primate ancestors in Africa. Evolution was marked by increase in
cranial capacity, upright posture, and cultural development.
Summary Table: Human Evolution
Species Cranial Capacity Features Time Period
(cc)
Australopithecus 400–500 Bipedal, primitive 4–1.5 mya
face
Homo habilis 600–800 Tool user, simple 2.4–1.4 mya
speech
Homo erectus 900 Used fire, cave 1.8–0.3 mya
dweller
Neanderthal man 1300–1600 Social behavior, 200k–30k years
buried dead ago
Homo sapiens 1350–1450 Modern humans, ~15k years ago
cultural
development
