Aids to selection/Methods of single trait selection:

Selection is a decision making process which depends on information about

animal. Sources of this information about the animal are the aids to selection.
Different aids to selection describe the procedure of estimating genetic merit of an
individual from its own phenotypes that of its relatives.

There are four (4) sources or aids of selection:

i) Individual/Mass selection ( Used when h2 value moderate and high- both)

ii) Pedigree information ( Used when h2 value high)
iii) Progeny performance/testing ( Used when h2 value low and sex related
traits)
iv) Family/sib selection ( Used when h2 value low and sex related traits)

When we select a particular single trait then we can use any of them for this reason
it is methods of selection for single traits.

i) Individual/Mass selection ( Used when h2 value moderate and high-

both): Individuals are selected solely on the basis of their own phenotypic
value for a trait or traits. The performance of the individual is the only
information used in making selection decisions.

It is two types:

a) Performance test- based on their own one time individual performance.

Information collected from systematic of comparative production
information.
b) Life time performance test- based on life time performance test. Eg. A
serious of lactation yield in a cow, annual fleece yield in a sheep.

Use:

 used in case of traits having heritability moderate to high(0.2 to above)

 traits which are expressed in both sex(eg. milk production are expressed in
females. So, Selection of breeding males cannot be based on their own
performance. )
 ii) Pedigree information ( Used when h2 value high): is based on ancestors
performance record. It is valuable because each individual receives
sample half of its genes from each parent (with the exception of sex
linked genes)

Use:

 used in the traits having high heritability

 traits that expressed in only one sex

More closely related to the individual should receive most emphasis in pedigree
appraisal.

Iii) Progeny performance/testing ( Used when h2 value low and sex related traits):
Selection of parents on the basis of mean performance of its progeny is called
progeny testing. Best progeny indicate genetically best individual (parent).

Genetic principle behind this→ Sample half of parent gene transmit to progeny.

Use:

o low heritable trait so performance is poor guide

o sex limited traits eg. Milk production
o measurable only after death eg. Some carcass traits
o for proven bull

Standards for accurate progeny testing: as many sires on test as possible (5-10
minimum)

 random mating of dams to ensure

 as many progeny per sire to be produced
 progeny for progeny testing should be contemporary(same treatment eg.
Environment, management and nutrition )

Limitations:

o time consuming ( minimum 5-6 yrs for bull selection)

o cost high
o low genetic gain due to increase generation interval
 iv) Family/sib selection ( Used when h2 value low and sex related traits):

Whole families are selected as units, according to the mean phenotypic value of
the family. Individual are thus not acted on. The families may be full sibs or
half sibs.

Use:

When the h2 of the character is low

When the character is sex limited

Methods of selection for multiple traits: There is a relationship between the

number of traits and effectiveness of the selection.

1. Tandem method
2. Independent culling level
3. Selection Index (SI)

1. Tandem method :

Selection is practiced for only one trait at a time until satisfactory improvement has
been made in this trait. Selection effort for this trait are then relaxed, and effort are
then directed toward the improvement of a second trait and so on.

o Time consuming
o Can’t be used if there is negative correlation between the traits
o Simple to use but less effective so not recommended

2. Independent culling level:

It is generally applied to several characters simultaneously but not just one

because economic value depends on more than one character. Eg. Profit made
from a herd of pigs depends on their fertility, mothering ability, growth rate,
feed efficiency and carcass qualities. This procedure involves setting
independent culling level for each of trait that is to be improved. Important
 advantage over the tandem method in that selection is practiced for more than
one trait at a time.

4. Selection Index (SI):

Involves the combining the measurements of two or more character into a single
value for each individual. The information needed to construct SI is:

i) The heritability of each trait to be included in the index

ii) The relative economic importance of each trait
iii) The genetic correlation among the traits
iv) The phenotypic value and standard deviation of each trait

I= a1h12x1+ a1h12x1+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -+ anhn2xn

where, a1= relative economic importance

h12= heritability value

x1= phenotypic value

use:

o rank and compare animals with other animals of the same breed.
o Most efficient method is index method

Correlated response to selection: Selection for one character almost always

produces changes in other character. Eg. Growth rate and FCR of broiler, Egg size
and egg number.

Breeding value(BV): Value of an individual as a parent for a particular trait.

BV= 2(Progeny mean- population mean)

BV = 2×Transmitting Ability (TA)

Contemporary group:

Group of animal of – same breed, same age, same sex, same treatment and have
been given opportunity to perform.
Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP): Statistical method of predicting BV of
animals. It needs the variance components (genetic and environmental) for
predicting the genetic values.

Indirect selection: One trait is selected with the response of other trait. eg. Scrotal
size increase→ fertility and fecundity increase.

Marker assisted selection: it linked to genes in breeding programs phenotype based

and genotype based selection.

Molecular/Genetic marker: it is a known DNA sequence associated with a certain

phenotype. Different form of molecular markers : Restriction fragment length
polymorphism(RFLPs), Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs),
Microsatellites and Single Nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

Advantages: Can test for a particular trait as early as the embryonic stage in
animals.
Mating/ Breeding system:

Mating system is the process of deciding which selected male will be

breed/mated with selected female. The transmission of genetic material from one
generation to the next is analyzed in terms of alleles rather than genotypes
because genotypes are broken up in each generation by the process of
segregation and recombination. A mating system is a set rules for mating animals
in a production system. The mating system determine the mode of transmission
of alleles from one generation to the next. Breeding systems aim to improve a
single trait or a multiple traits. Knowledge of breeding systems is important
because producers can use these to preserve genetic superiority and utilize
hybrid vigor. There are three reasons for using mating systems: i) to produce
offspring with extreme breeding value ii) to make use of complementarity iii) to
obtain hybrid vigor

Broadly mating systems of 2 types: i) Random mating/panmixia : Any individual of

one sex has the equal chance of mating with another individual of the opposite
sex in the population. Condition – i) Random manner mating ii) equal chance of
mating (no special tendency or biasness)

In random mating, the probability of particular mating is the product of genotype

frequency.

TT Tt tt
Genotype freq. 0.4 0.2 0.4
TT × TT = 0.4× 0.4 =0.16 (possibility of TT × TT mating)

TT × tt= 0.4× 0.4 =0.16 (possibility of TT × tt mating)

TT × Tt= 0.4× 0.2 =0.08 (possibility of TT × Tt mating)

ii) Non-random mating : Any deviation from random is called Non-random mating.
Any departure from random mating naturally leads to complications in the
relationship between allele frequencies and genotype frequencies. In NRM
deviation occurred due to 2 rasons:

1. Phenotypic resemblance/likeness
 2. Genetic relationship/Biological relationship

On the basis of phenotypic resemblance NRM mating are 2 types:

1. Positive assortative/ assortative mating / like to like eg. TT × Tt

2. Dissassortative/ Negative assortative mating eg. TT × tt

Genetic consequences of assortative/ Dissassortative mating: Assortative mating

–same phenotype and increase homozygous genotype and decrease
heterozygosity.

Classification of mating systems:

On the basis of genetic relationship – Non random mating two types:

i) Inbreeding (Breeding between related individual)

ii) Outbreeding(Breeding between non-related individual)

Genetically related (Biological relationship): have common ancestor up to 5-6

generation and above this they will be genetically unrelated.

Inbreeding: is the mating of individuals that are more closely related than the
average relationship within the breed and population concern.

The offspring from inbreeding are inbred. The offspring from outbreeding are
outbred.

Genetic consequences of inbreeding: inbreeding increases homozygocity and

ultimate fate decrease genetic variation and genetic diversity. In extreme
inbreeding self fertilization or selfing occured eg. Pea plant. It doesn’t occurred in
livestock. Heterozygocity reduces 50% for per generation of inbreeding.

eg. Tt × Tt (Heterozygocity 100)

Gamete 1 TT 2Tt 1tt

Heterozygous 50% and homozygous 50%

At t generation due to inbreeding heterozygocity decrease (1/2) t eg. at 10

generation (1/2)10
It is of two types:

i) Intensive inbreeding- is the mating of closely related animals for several

generations.

Close breeding: Intense inbreeding by mating full or half sibs, cousins or

parents to offspring is referred to as close breeding.

Effect:

o it can produce extremely good or poor results.

o haphazard close breeding could very detrimental to the overall quality
of the resulting offspring.
o success and failure depend on factors such as planning, foundation
stock, emphasis on culling and completeness of pedigree and
performance records.
o Usefulness:
 valuable tool for genetic research
 since it quickly exposes hidden gene types that an individual
carries.
ii) Line breeding : Is a special form of inbreeding designed to maintain a
high genetic relationship to an outstanding ancestor while keeping
inbreeding as low as possible.
Effect:
 to maintain a large percentage of one outstanding ancestor’s
genes from generation to generation without causing an increase
of frequency of undesirable often associated with inbreeding
 it is not based strictly of mating closely related individuals so it
does not cause the increase in homozygous gene pairs
Measurement of Inbreeding:

Inbreeding is often measured in terms of the coefficient of inbreeding, symbolized

by F. This coefficient range from 0 to 1. F=0 means there has been no inbreeding
meaning that the population is in H- W equilibrium, and F = 1 means that
inbreeding is complete. The inbreeding coefficient measures the percentage
increase in homozygocity relative to the average of the breed. If an individual has
an inbreeding coefficient of 0.25 it means that it is expected to have 25% of more
homozygous gene pairs than a non-inbred individual from the same population.
This would the case if full siblings were mated. Thus, the higher F is, the more
inbred the population is. Inbreeding coefficient can be estimated by two ways-

o from genotype frequencies

o or pedigrees.

From genotype frequencies: By comparing the number of heterozygotes

observed to the number expected for a population in H- W equilibrium, we can
estimate the degree of inbreeding. Inbreeding coefficient is defined as percentage
decrease in heterozygocity relative to that expected from random mating. Thus,

F= Expected Heterozygocity- Observed Heterozygocity/ Expected Heterozygocity

From pedigrees: The inbreeding coefficient is the probability that two alleles at
any locus in an individual are identical by descent from the common ancestor(s)
of the two parents. This means the degree to which two alleles are more likely to
be homozygous (AA or aa) rather than heterozygous (Aa) in an individual. There
are several methods to compute this percentage; the main two ways are the path
method and tabular method. The actual level of inbreeding is relative to the base
population, which is assumed to be unrelated and non-inbred. In practice, the
base population is the population when pedigree recording started i, e., it is the
population in which the parents are unknown. Effective calculation of inbreeding
relies on full and accurate pedigree information. Where pedigree records are
incomplete the calculation may assume no relationship.

Biological relationships between animals:

Individuals are considered to be biologically/ genetically related when they have
one or more common ancestors. For practical purposes, if two individuals have no
common ancestor within the last five or six generations, they are considered
unrelated. The closer relationship is that of an individual with itself, or self-
fertilization.

Inbreeding coefficient= ½ × Relationship coefficient

Parent offspring RC = 50% so, IC = 25%

Full sib RC = 50% so, IC = 25%

Grandparent- grand parent progeny, RC = 25% so, IC =12.5%

half sibs

Great-grandparent- great-grand parent progeny, RC = 12.5% so, IC =6.25%

first or full cousins

Second cousins; half RC = 6.25% so, IC =3.125%

first cousins

This having of relationships and genes occurs with each generation. Thus, after
only a few generations, any ancestor is likely to be source of only a small fraction
of its descendants. Biological relationship is important in animal breeding because
the closer the relationship, the higher the percentage of like genes the two
individuals carry. Closeness of the relationship is determined by three factors:

1. How far back in the two animals pedigrees the common ancestor appears?
2. How many common ancestors they have?
3. How frequently the common ancestors appear?

Inbreeding depression:

Inbreeding causes an increase in homozygocity; affect all loci in a population

quality. The danger in this is that deleterious recessive alleles which are present in
a low frequency in the whole population will become homozygous in inbred
offspring. This causes the reduction of the mean phenotypic value of quantitative
traits such as size, vigor fertility and yield. The decline in performance is called
inbreeding depression. The actual performance reduction is not the same in all
species or in all traits. Some characteristics such as meat quality is hardly
influenced by inbreeding: others like reproductive efficiency are greatly
influenced by inbreeding Usually, the traits most affected by fitness traits that
are low heritability. As inbreeding progress there will be decline in fertility both in
litter size and sperm viability, an increase in embryonic mortality a decline in
progeny survival, higher frequency of hereditary abnormalities, loss of immune
system function and eventually a lowering of growth rate and milk yield. A linear
negative relationship between production traits and the degree of inbreeding can
be predicted.

Purposes of inbreeding:

1. Production of inbred lines: The primary objective of inbreeding Production

of inbred lines which can be commercially used. In plant breeding, medical
research, and animal breeding inbred lines are useful because they are
genetically uniform for known traits.
2. Utilization of hybrid vigor: Crossing two highly inbred lines introduces
hybrid vigor and combines the desirable traits in both lines. eg. Broiler and
layer strains.
AA BB CC DD (100% Homozygote CC DD ) × aa bb cc dd
(100% Homozygote)

Aa Bb Cc Dd (100% Heterozygotozygote )
3. Utilizaton of hybrid vigor: Crossing two highly inbred lines introduces hybrid
vigor and combines the desirable traits of both lines.
4. Elimination of deleterious allele: Inbreeding can result in the expression of
deleterious recessive alleles in a homozygous form. Once deleterious traits
appear due to inbreeding, natural selection can cause their removal from
population; therefore the deleterious alleles will not be passed to future
generations.
Inbred line:

An inbred is one whose parents are related that is there is common ancestry in
the family tree. A line to be called inbred should have at least 50% of inbreeding
coefficient. It can be produced by parent offspring mating, full sib mating and first
cousin mating. Three generations of full sib mating or 6 generations of half sib
mating produces inbred lines with 50% coefficient of inbreeding. After 20
generations of full sib mating, when essentially all genetic loci are homozygous or
fixed and F approaches 100%, no further genetic change take place except
through mutation or introduction of different genetic material. An inbred strain is
defined is the product of over 20 generations of full sib mating which results in
individuals that are 98% identical to each other. After 40 generations of
inbreeding they are 99.5 % similar. In other words they are almost clones. The
coefficient of inbreeding never quite reaches 100 percent. Once an inbred strain
has been established, no further inbreeding depression should occur.

Incross and In-crossbred:

When a cross is made between two inbred lines belonging to same breed it is
called an incross, and between those belonging to different breed incrossbred.
Outbreeding:

is the mating of individuals that are less closely related than the average of the
breed or population concerned. The frequency of heterozygotes increased and
the frequency of homozygotes decreased.

There are 4 types of outbreeding called

1. Species cross
2. Crossbreeding
3. Out crossing
4. Grading up
1. Species cross: Mating animals of different species. Donkey 2N=62
(Male)× 2N=64 Horse (Female)→ Mule 2N= 63, Lion× Tiger (liger or
tigon), wolf × Domestic dog, Zebu × Yak →Himalayas
2. Crossbreeding: Mating between different breeds of same species.
Brahma × Friesian (Pure breed) →Recognized breed. Fitness trait linearly
decease in inbreeding but according to rules fitness trait linearly
increase with outbreeding but any one can predict about these. There
are unlimited crossbreeding schemes. the most commonly utilized
crossbreeding schemes include:
1. Two breed single cross: Simply male of one breed × Female of
another breed
2. Two breed terminal cross: (Heterosis 50%)
F1 x F1 →F2 →F3-- -
3. Back cross F1 (Female)x Parental breed (male)(Except the male of
the cross) Male will be under same breed but will not same male
then it will be inbreeding.
A x B → F1AB sell male female use for next generation.

Rotational crossing: a series of breeds (two or more breeds) are used in

succession. Purebred males are used on crossbred females.

Two breed rotational cross: Bull of two breeds are used.

Crisscrossing: it is an extension of backcrossing.

 A x B xC
50% 50% 50%
↓
A B A B C
25% 25% 25% 25% 50%
ABx A ABC x A

25% 25% 50% ABC x B

↓ ABC x C

A 75%

B 25%

A → 37.5

B → 62.5

Two breed rotational cross

Three - - - - - - - - - -

Four - - - - - - - - -

Ax B Cx D (2 way cross)

↓ ↓

AB x CD (4 way cross)

Strain crossing: Cross between different strain.

Top crossing:

Inbred males of one breed x non-inbred female of another breed

Advantages of cross breeding:

For the production of hybrid vigor

 Breed complementation

Heterosis: Main objective of crossbreeding is heterosis. It defined as the increased

performance of offspring compared to the average of the parents.

Heterosis % = Mean of offspring- mean of parents/ mean of parents x 100

Heterosis is opposite to inbreed depression. Fitness trait will be increased linearly.

When breed will be genetically unrelated then heterosis will be more.

main genetic causes of heterosis is Dominance and epistasis. Heterosis highest in

F1 then F2, F3 it will be decreased. For low heritable trait if you do inbreeding

*** then will be inbreeding depression and for outbreeding effect will be heterosis.
The event of heterosis and inbreeding depression will be for low heritable trait.

Disadvantages of heterosis:

1. It is a transient effect
2. Superior performance observed in crossbred individual is not transmitted
upon breeding.
3. Maxim gene in heterozygous condition then if we do further cross then it
will be decreased.
Animal breeding program

Systematic and structured prograthat is set up in order to genetically improve

livestock population.

General aim :

i) More production

ii) More efficient production eg. Broiler

Components of animal breeding programme:

1. Formulate the breeding goal and objective

objectives: such as improvement of related traits with milk production eg. Daily
milk yield, lactation length (Standard lactation period 305 days and dry period 60
days), FCR, early maturity, Age at 1st estrous and conception and calving interval.
Breeding objectives also defined as selection criteria.

2. Develop data recording and processing system

How much improvement can determine to see data, Need actual record keeping
system. For processing computer package programme available.

3. Genetic evaluation system: (To select best animal): For next generation
improvement. Selection best superior parent.

4. Selection and mating system: Different selection and mating system are used
for Animal breeding programme.

5. Dissemination of genetic improvement and superiority: Step by step

development of entire population. Through Nucleus → Multiplier → Commercial

Breeding male × Breeding female

↖↓ ↗

Male or Female
6. Monitoring and evaluating system: Within system how much genetic and
incase of error correction

limiting factors breeding programme:

i) Reproductive rate of breeding animals

ii) Uncertainty about true genetic merit of breeding animals

Reproductive rate and improvement is highly correlated. Definitely you cannot say
it is improved because you can’t see genotype.

Some consideration for breeding programme:

i. Agricultural development policy : According to policy we have to breeding

design. Everything will be preplanned balancing with policy no more or noless.

ii. Environment, production system culture and market: Production system vary
according to locality or country culture. Without adjustment people will not accept
the product. Production will be according to market demand.

iii. Infrastructure and role of the farmer

iv. Matching genotype with the environment

v. balancing rate of genetic gain diversity and environmental effect: Balance

with genetic gain and diversity.

Conservation of genetic resources

Diversity means Difference, genetic diversity means genetic variation.

The term biodiversity is commonly used to describe the no. of variety and
variability of living organisms that can be found in the world/ecosystem/habitat. If
variety reduce then biodiversity will be hampered.

Components of biodiversity:
i) Species diversity: How many types of species there are

ii) Genetic diversity : How many types of alleles for particular species

iii) Ecosystem diversity: Different types of ecosystem in a particular area

Genetic material: Without minimum number of virus, bacteria and all other

organisms and some RNA.

Genetic resource: Genetic material of actual or potential value is genetic resource.

Conservation: is the protection and management of species and habitat.

Genetic improvement will hamper conservation because genetic frequency is

changed.

Justification/cause:

i) Economic and biological reasons

ii) Historical, social and cultural reasons (improved bred has come from
original wild)

iii) Environmental reasons

iv) Risk reduction reasons

v) Scientific reasons

Methods of conservation:

i) Insito/ on farm conservation: animal maintain in original habitat Eg. Red

chittagong cattle maintain at chittagong.

ii) Exsito/offside conservation: Outside of their natural habitat Eg. Red

chittagong cattle maintain other region except chittagong.

Two types:

a) Invivo conservation: Conserve live animal out side of their natural habitat.
b) Invitro conservation: gamete, embryo(not live), genetic material
→Cryogenetically conserved in liquid nitrogen for unlimited period.

Record keeping

Record is information which is systematically collected and carefully and

appropriately stored for intended use. Record keeping is a activity of organizing
and storing of all document.

Criteria for good record keeping:

1. Must be useful

2. Must be kept in such a form so that it can easily converted into information
eg. date of birth of animal, age of first estrous, date of first calving

3. it must be simple

4. Duplication must be avoided as much as possible

5. Record must lead to action being taken eg. Body condition score, nutrition
status

Objectives of record keeping: (Depends on the enterprise)

1. Performance evaluation for selection of animal

2. Economic evaluation

3. Genetic evaluation

4. Improve bargaining power of product

5. Control of inbreeding
6. Aid to culling of low performance

7. To asses profit or loss

8. Aids better management decision

9. Aids in research and husbandry

Types of records:

Depends on particular industry objectives

1. Physical /identification record: Animal identity, breed, sex, Ancestry, date of

birth

2. Breeding record

3. Production record

4. Feeding record

5. Financial record

6. Lambing record

7. Growth record

8. Health record

9. Carcass yields record

10. Hides and skin record

Types of data to be recorded:

1. Animal ID ( Important for breeding)

2. Herd/ Flock ID

3. Farmer ID

4. Pedigree record (ancestor record) Sire and dam no. of the particular animal

5. Relevent parameter values

6. Date

7. Weight at different age (birth wt, 1mt wt., 2mnth wt)

8. Yield Milk, Fleece, carcass

9. Body condition score

10. Fertility parameter (Age at first service)

Animal identification (important for breeding)

• Must be unique (specific animal specific ID)

• Flock/herd ID must be unique

• animal ID must be visible

• Device used in identification veterinary jurisprudence must be followed

• ID replacement opportunity should be available

Animal identification :

a) Temporary identification (ear tags, tags, flank tags, Brisket tags neck bands,
leg band, colr marking, naming, clipping /shaving)

b) Permanent identification eg. Tattoing most used, decription, ear notching,

brunch, implantable microchip
 Lec-8
Farm Animal Genetic Resources Conservation
Why and how?

Background:

• Phenotypic characteristics (appearance) are often used to divide animals into species, and there is great diversity
across species.

• However there may be limited genetic variation within any given species

• Domestication of animals has led to the development of specific breeds, in the process increasing the within
species variation.

*Intensification of Agriculture:

As agriculture has moved from small production systems to large commercial systems farm animal genetic
diversity has declined.

* Selection goals and production environments are now very similar throughout the developed world

*We are very efficient at changing the genetic diversity of populations.

*Modern reproductive technologies such as semen and embryo collection and freezing allow a selected individual
to produce large numbers of progeny.

*Modern transport allows rapid and efficient distribution of germplasm.

• World industrialization and a world economy make production level the criterion for selection.

• Breeding programs are increasingly being carried out by national and multinational companies.

For example:

-Three poultry breeding companies provide meat stocks for farms around the world, with the same strains used
from Europe to Asia.

-A similar number of companies supply birds for commercial egg production.

The result?

* Modern animal industry now uses only a few breeds of any species.

• Of the many breeds once commonly seen on farms, many have declined greatly in numbers and others have
disappeared completely

• Poultry stocks are hybrid strains - the farm birds of the 1950’s are now seen only as "fancy' flocks.

Reasons for Genetic Conservation:

To take advantage of heterosis (hybrid vigour)

Heterosis is the increase above the average of the parent stocks obtained by crossing genetically diverse breeds.
To overcome selection plateaus

A selection plateau occurs when genetic variation is lost; no further change is possible because animals are
genetically alike.

If genetic variation exists in other breeds, crosses can be made to overcome this.

To provide an insurance policy against

-climate change

-spread of disease, especially in monocultures

-changing availability of feedstuffs

-social change, such as issues of animal welfare and environmental sustainability

-selection errors: a widely used sire may spread a genetic disease throughout a population before the problem is
identified.

For cultural reasons:

-Our history is closely linked to agricultural practices and use of particular breeds.

-Poultry breeds such as the Barred Plymouth Rock was common on farms.

-This breeds are now used on 'living history parks or living museums and important in education and tourism.

For research:

-Control (unselected) lines are used to measure genetic progress in selection

*Identification of specific genes, which regulate traits such as product quality and health, is made easier by
comparing very different groups.

*Economic evaluation of breeding programs now includes sociological aspects, as part of a focus on sustainable
rural development Research into the role of minor breeds in such production systems is needed.

Goals of conservation:

•To keep genetic variation as gene combinations, in a form that is easily recovered

Live animals may be appropriate for some situations. Cryopreservation of sperm, ova or embryos is possible in
many species and new tissue culture technologies show promise.

•To keep specific genes

As gene sequences linked to specific traits are identified and defined we will be able to save those DNA portions of
interest.
Steps necessary for conservation:

• Inventory

• Evaluation

Stocks must be characterized for phenotype and genotype, using new technology as appropriate

• Gene mapping

• Choice

• Preservation

• Cryopreservation:

• DNA collection:

Economically important morphological traits In poultry:

Poultry genetics like plant and animal genetics may be classified as

i) Qualitative genetics Example; plumage color and pattern, inheritance of comb, mophological characters such as
naked neck, dwarfism, skin shank and eye pigmentation and

i) Quantitative genetics.

Genetics of plumage color and pattern:

-The feather cover of a fowl is called plumage The plumage of a bird may be different color and patterns.

-Before discussing the genetics of color and patterns of plumage it is important to know about feathering itself.

Feather development and growth:

-It is essential components of bird's body, provide protection against

-Injuries, keeping warm, essential for flight and sexing of day old chicks possible by observing the down feathers of
the day old chick

-Feather begin their growth in follicles found in the skin of the developing embryo.

-From then onwards feather growth continuous

-The growth rate of feathers increases progressively in the in the areas of back, saddle anterior and posterior
breast.

Feather pigmentation:
Pigments of the chickens

i) Melanins and carotinoeds,

Melanins - Responsible for feather color and also for skin, shanks, beak and eyes of the chicken
It has also two different types

a), Eumelanin-responsible for Black or blue feather, skin eye and connective tissue.

b) Pheomelanin-red brown and buff coloured feathers.

The first pigment cells melanoblasts are formed in the embryo at about 80 hours of incubation

Plumage color and pattern:

* Self or solid colored breeds and varieties of chickens are those with white, black, red or blue plumage.

White plumage:

-Indicates no pigmentation or is absence or much reduction of melanin

-This type of plumage has commercial value particularly for broiler breeding operations

-White plumage is inherited either as a dominant or as a recessive white.

Dominant white:

The plumage of white leghorn is white.

-The white plumage due to the presence of a dominant gene l.

-The gene I may also be introduced by crossing to other white breeds and varieties such as White Plymouth
Rock, White Minorca, White Wyndotte and white Dorkings.

-The gene l is not completely dominant to black, red or buff.

Recessive white:

-The mutant phenotype referred to as recessive white and is a varietal characteristic of.

-Plymouth Rock, Wyndotte, Minorca, Silky, Dorking. Orpington and others.

-The autosomal recessive was established by W. Bateson, and R. C. Punnet in the year 1906.

*They crossed two white breeds, White Silkies and white Dorkings together and secured all colored progeny in the
F, generation.

* The F, generation produced a ratio of 9 coloured to 7 white birds.

* It clearly indicated that a complementary gene effect.

*Considering gene Crepresenting chromogen and gene O oxidase, the complimentary gene effect can be
explained.

*Thus in F, 1CCOO, 2CCO0, 4Co0o=9 birds contain both C and O and all are colored.

*1CCoo, 2Ccoo, 1ccOo and 1ccoo=7 white birds

*Since birds with the recessive white plumage carry the gene c indicating lack of chromogen.
Blue:
-It is in heterozygous color and found in blue Andalusian fowl.

-When blue Andalusian males and females produced offspring in the ratio of 1 = Black, 2. blues and one is white.

-When the blue Andalusian crossed with recessive white produce progeny in the ratio of 1 blue to 1 white

Red:
-It has been reported that Red Island red is due to multiple gene.

Buff:
The buff is due to the gene e which in a heterozygous condition restricts back to the neck, tail and wing feathers.

Silkle plumage: It is due to an autosomal recessive gene and it is irregularly arranged and elongated barbules
lacking barbicules.

• Silver and gold: These are transmitted as a sex linked character

• The gene for silver is represented by the letter S which is dominant over to its recessive alleles for gold

• Gold (s) generally considered to be the gene responsible for red pigment

• The offspring of homozygous gold (ss) males crossed with gold (sw) females are gold irrespective of sex.

Pied plumage: It is characterized by a mixture of black and white. It behaves as a simple recessive to full
colour(Black).

• Barring condition: It is two types i) Autosomal and i) Sex-linked barring

i) Autosomal barring: There is three different kinds of barring. The silver variety, Golden vanity and the Chemos
variety and each of which of which has definite characteristics.

• The silver variety has black and white bars, golden variety black and golden bay bars and the Chemois variety
white and golden bay bars.

• White bars of the silver variety are therefore due to the action of a gene which inhibit the expression of
development of golden bay. Chemois variety is dominant over golden variety. The difference between white and
golden bay bars and black and golden bay bars due to a single gene ab.

ii) Sex linked barring: Barring is a sex-linked dominant character in Barred-plymouth Rock. The gene responsible for
barring condition is symbolized by the letter B which produces the barring effect.

• The barred females are hemizygous, transmit the B gene to her son only. The inheritane pattern of sex
linked barring is demonstrated in the following two crosses given below:
 Mother (silver) . Father (red)

S s+/s+

S+ S/s+
Daughter (reddish) Son(white)

Naked Neck:

•Naked neck is a condition where there is no feathers on most part of the neck of the fowl.

•Skin of in this area thickened, wrinkled and deep red color during the period of sexual activity. It is due to an
autosomal gene designated as Na.

Nakedness:

• A condition in the fowl, where at hatching time, the chicks vary from almost downlessness to almost normal
down covered chicks.

• The anterior portion is more naked than the posterior portion of the chick.

• It is noticeable from about 2 to 4 weeks of age. In the adult stages the degree of nakedness varies considerably.

• It is caused by a sex-linked recessive gene.

Dwarfism:

*It is an inherited condition found in chickens consisting of a significant delayed growth,

*resulting in adult individuals with a distinctive small size in comparison with normal specimens of the same breed
or population.

*The affected birds show no signs of dwarfism in the first weeks of age.

* Differences in size due to dwarfism appear slow and progressively along the growing stage

*Poultry breeders begin to distinguish gradually dwarfs from normal birds by their shortest shanks and smallest
body size.

*Depending on the breed, most types of dwarfism in chickens begin to be recognized when the birds reach 8-10
weeks of age

*Dwarfs chickens reach sexual maturity and reproduce normally

*Dwarfism in chickens has been found to be controlled by several simple genetic factors

*Some types are autosomic while others are sex-linked and sex-linked recessive gene dw responsible for dwarfism
located on the Z chromosome.