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Reference notebook

G RA M M A R
E B O O K
NO T

martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Types of sentences

SENTENCE
TYPES
Simple Definition: a sentence consisting of only one clause,
Sentence with a single subject and predicate
Example: I cannot drink hot coffee.
Compound Definition: a sentence with more than one subject or
Sentence predicate.
Example: I am counting my calories, yet I really want
dessert.
Complex Definition: a sentence containing a subordinate clause
Sentence or clauses
Example: Though he was very rich, he was still very
unhappy
Compound- Definition: a sentence having two or more coordinate
Complex independent clauses and one or more dependent
Sentence clauses.
Example: I will get to watch television, but first, I have
to clean up the dishes after we finish eating.
Declarative Definition: The most common type of sentence, makes
Sentence a statement, and always ends with a period.
Example: Mrs. Cahill is my English teacher.
Imperative Definition: A request or command; always ends with a
Sentence period.
Example: Go wash the dishes.
Exclamatory Definition: A more forceful version of a declarative
Sentence sentence; ends with an exclamation point.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Example: You were supposed to be home 4 hours ago!

Interrogative Definition: A sentence that asks a question; always ends
Sentence with a question mark.
Example: When are you going to Starbucks?
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
PARTS OF SPEECH 1
Definition: Identifies a person, place, thing, or idea.
noun
Example: Elaina was late for class again.

Pronoun Definition: A word that takes the place of a noun.

Example: She couldn’t wait to go shopping at Target.

verb Definition: A words that shows an action.

PARTS OF
SPEECH 1
Example: Emma was running after the bus yesterday.
adverb Definition: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
(Modify means to change the meaning of a word). Often
end in –ly
Example: He ran home very quickly.

adjective Definition: a word that describes, identifies or further defines a

noun or a pronoun.
Example: My grandmother is a very wise, kind, and funny woman.
Subject Definition: Tells what the sentence is about; a noun or pronoun.
Example: The boys went to the zoo.

predicate Definition: What the subject does; Contains the verb or verb
phrase
Example: The boys went to the zoo.

Preposition Definition: A word that connects a noun, a noun phrase, or a

pronoun to another word, especially to a verb
Example: We jumped in the lake.

Conjunction Definition: A word that joins words or groups of words.

Example: The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the museum.

Interjection Definition: An abrupt remark, made especially as an aside or

interruption
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Example: Oh dear! I don’t know what to do about this mess.

Article Definition: A word used to modify a noun, which is a person,
place, object, or idea
Example: It was an important event in history.

martina cahill- the hungry teacher

PARTS OF SPEECH 2
Clause Definition: a group of words having its own subject and predicate
Example: When it rained, they went inside.
Clause 1 Clause 2
Subordinate Definition: Will begin with a subordinate conjunction or a relative
clause pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb.
(dependent Example: Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.
clause) Dependent clause Independent clause

Independent Definition: A group of words that can stand alone as a sentence.

Clause Example: Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.
Dependent clause Independent clause

Subordinate Definition: a word that connects a main clause to

conjunction a subordinate clause.
Example: Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.

SPEECH 2
PARTS OF
Coordinating Definition: A conjunction that connects two or more words,
conjunction phrases, or clauses.
Example: The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.
Misplaced Definition: a phrase or clause placed awkwardly in a sentence so
modifier that it appears to modify or refer to an unintended word.
Example: He bought a horse for his sister they call Prince.
Correction: He bought a horse, they call Prince, for his sister.
Nuances Definition: A subtle difference in expression, meaning, or
response.
Example: Light lime green and lime green.
Helping verbs Definition: Help the main verb in a sentence by extending
the meaning of the verb.
Example: It was raining when we got to Portland.
Linking verbs Definition: a verb that connects a subject with a noun or
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

adjective that is the subject.

Example: They are cold.
Coordinating Definition: a group of words having its own subject and predicate
Adjectives Example: When it rained, they went inside.
Clause 1 Clause 2
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
punctuation Marks 1
Period Definition: Punctuation at the end of a
declaration or imperative sentence; also used at
the end of abbreviations.
Example: Mr., Mrs., misc., etc.

Comma Definition: Punctuation used for indicating a

division in a sentence, especially when such a
division is accompanied by a slight pause.
Example: Although she was late, she was an
excellent addition.

exclamation Definition: Punctuation used especially after an

interjection or exclamation to indicate forceful
point utterance or strong feeling
Example: Hurry up or we’re going to be late!

Question Definition: Punctuation used to ask a question

mark Example: Where are you going?

Parentheses Definition: Information in parentheses is not

essential to the meaning of the original sentence.

punctuation
Marks 1
It is given as additional, or extra, information.
Example: The president (and his assistant)
traveled by private jet.
Incorrect: The president (and his assistant) were
arriving at 10:00 a.m.
quotation Definition: Punctuation marks used to begin or
end a quotation. Titles of things go in quotations if
marks
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

it is a small piece of something larger.

Example: Mrs. Cahill repeatedly says, “Joseph
and Chris sit down.”
Example 2: My favorite episode of The Big Bang
Theory is “The Cognition Regeneration.”
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
punctuation Marks 2
Definition: A punctuation mark (:) used to introduce a
Colon
description, an explanation, or a list.
Example: The little boy announced that he wanted the
following for his birthday: two sweaters, a new tent, and
three toy cars.

semi-colon Definition: The punctuation mark (;) used to indicate a

major division in a sentence where a more distinct
separation is felt between clauses or items on a list than
is indicated by a comma; between the two clauses of
a compound sentence.
Example: Dad is going bald; his hair is getting thinner
and thinner.

Apostrophe Definition: a punctuation mark ( ’ ) used to indicate

either possession or the omission of letters or
numbers (i.e. contractions).
Example: Harry's book ; boys' coats; can’t
Ellipses Definition: a literary device that is used in narratives
to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which
gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while
acting or reading it out
Example: So…what happened?
Dash Definition: is a mark of punctuation used to set off a
word or phrase after an independent clause or to
set off a parenthetical remark
Example: By trying we can easily learn to endure
adversity—another man's, I mean.
punctuation
Marks 2
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Hyphen Definition: the sign -, used to join words to indicate

that they have a combined meaning or that they
are linked in the grammar of a sentence
Example: She hyphenates her first name, Anne-
Marie.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
 figurative language

Figurative
language
Simile Definition: Compares two unlike things using “like” or “as.”
Example: “Myra's head is as empty as a flower pot.”
Metaphor Definition: Comparing two things that are not alike to suggest
they have something in common.
Example: “It was said that Green Lake was ”Heaven on earth"
and Miss Katherine's peaches were "food for the angels.”
Hyperboles Definition: an exaggeration that can’t possibly be true.

Example: “Mama was crying, and the rain made it seem as if

the whole world was crying.”
Alliterations Definition: The repetition of beginning consonant sounds in
two or more neighboring words or syllables.
Example: Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Pepper.
Onomatopoeia Definition: Naming a thing or an action by imitating the
sound associated with it.
Example: ”Boom” or “buzz.”
Personification Definition: Giving something unhuman, actual human
qualities.
Example: “The plane went into a glide, a very fast glide that
ate altitude, and suddenly there weren't any lakes.”
Idioms Definition: An expression of two or more words that means
something other than the actual or literal meaning.

Example: "I go, 'You must have ants in your pants,' and he
gets this funny look.
Allusion Definition: An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a
reference to a place, person, or event.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Example: “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo”

is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo.
Adage Definition: a proverb or short statement expressing a general
truth.
Example: "Slow and steady wins the race."
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
Words and language
Homophones Definition: two or more words having the same
pronunciation but different meanings, origins, or

Words and
language
spelling.
Example: new and knew.

homonyms Definition: two or more words having the same

spelling but different meanings and origins.
Example: “Pen.” This can mean both a holding area
for animals and a writing instrument

homographs Definition: two or more words spelled the same but

not necessarily pronounced the same and having
different meanings and origins.
Example: wind: The wind blew the sign over. She
bought him a wind up toy.

synonyms Definition: a word or phrase that means exactly or

nearly the same as another word or phrase in the
same language
Example: Shut and close

antonyms Definition: A word opposite in meaning to another.

Example: Bad and good

Denotations Definition: The literal dictionary definition of a word

Example: Chick-literally means a "baby bird," but is
often used as a somewhat derogatory term for a
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

woman.

Connotation Definition: an idea or feeling that a word invokes

Example: Mule-literally a mix between a donkey and
a horse. Used to refer to a stubborn person.

martina cahill- the hungry teacher

verbs Definition: used to make factual statements, ask
Indicative
questions, or express opinions as if they were facts
Mood verb
Example: Colin sings us a song.

Imperative Definition: forms commands or requests, including

the giving of prohibition or permission
mood verb
Example: Sing us a song.

Interrogative Definition: Asks a question

Mood verb
Example: Do you think Colin will sing us a song?

Conditional Definition: shows under what conditions something

might happen

verbs
Mood verb
Example: I might be able to reach him if I call his
cell phone

Subjunctive Definition: expresses a condition which is doubtful

or not factual.
Mood verb
Example: If I were President, I wouldn’t put up
with it.

Gerund Definition: A gerund is a type of verbal that ends in -

ing and is used like a noun
verbal
Example: Jumping is fun.

Participle Defintion: a verb that ends in -ing (present participle)

or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle). Participles may
verbal function as adjectives, describing or modifying
nouns.
Example: The dancing parrots entertained the
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

crowd.

Infinitive Definition: the base form of a verb with to. Usually it

functions as a noun, although it can also function as
Verbal an adjective or adverb
Example: To jump is fun.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
Types of sentences

SENTENCE
TYPES
Simple Definition: a sentence consisting of only one clause,
Sentence with a single subject and predicate
Example: I cannot drink hot coffee.
Compound Definition: a sentence with more than one subject or
Sentence predicate.
Example: I am counting my calories, yet I really want
dessert.
Complex Definition: a sentence containing a subordinate clause
Sentence or clauses
Example: Though he was very rich, he was still very
unhappy
Compound- Definition: a sentence having two or more coordinate
Complex independent clauses and one or more dependent
Sentence clauses.
Example: I will get to watch television, but first, I have
to clean up the dishes after we finish eating.
Declarative Definition: The most common type of sentence, makes
Sentence a statement, and always ends with a period.
Example: Mrs. Cahill is my English teacher.
Imperative Definition: A request or command; always ends with a
Sentence period.
Example: Go wash the dishes.
Exclamatory Definition: A more forceful version of a declarative
Sentence sentence; ends with an exclamation point.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Example: You were supposed to be home 4 hours ago!

Interrogative Definition: A sentence that asks a question; always ends
Sentence with a question mark.
Example: When are you going to Starbucks?
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
PARTS OF SPEECH 1
Definition: Identifies a person, place, thing, or idea.
noun
Example: Elaina was late for class again.

Pronoun Definition: A word that takes the place of a noun.

Example: She couldn’t wait to go shopping at Target.

verb Definition: A words that shows an action.

PARTS OF
SPEECH 1
Example: Emma was running after the bus yesterday.
adverb Definition: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
(Modify means to change the meaning of a word). Often
end in –ly
Example: He ran home very quickly.

adjective Definition: a word that describes, identifies or further defines a

noun or a pronoun.
Example: My grandmother is a very wise, kind, and funny woman.
Subject Definition: Tells what the sentence is about; a noun or pronoun.
Example: The boys went to the zoo.

predicate Definition: What the subject does; Contains the verb or verb
phrase
Example: The boys went to the zoo.

Preposition Definition: A word that connects a noun, a noun phrase, or a

pronoun to another word, especially to a verb
Example: We jumped in the lake.

Conjunction Definition: A word that joins words or groups of words.

Example: The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the museum.

Interjection Definition: An abrupt remark, made especially as an aside or

interruption
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Example: Oh dear! I don’t know what to do about this mess.

Article Definition: A word used to modify a noun, which is a person,
place, object, or idea
Example: It was an important event in history.

martina cahill- the hungry teacher

PARTS OF SPEECH 2
Clause Definition: a group of words having its own subject and predicate
Example: When it rained, they went inside.
Clause 1 Clause 2
Subordinate Definition: Will begin with a subordinate conjunction or a relative
clause pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb.
(dependent Example: Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.
clause) Dependent clause Independent clause

Independent Definition: A group of words that can stand alone as a sentence.

Clause Example: Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.
Dependent clause Independent clause

Subordinate Definition: a word that connects a main clause to

conjunction a subordinate clause.
Example: Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.

SPEECH 2
PARTS OF
Coordinating Definition: A conjunction that connects two or more words,
conjunction phrases, or clauses.
Example: The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.
Misplaced Definition: a phrase or clause placed awkwardly in a sentence so
modifier that it appears to modify or refer to an unintended word.
Example: He bought a horse for his sister they call Prince.
Correction: He bought a horse, they call Prince, for his sister.
Nuances Definition: A subtle difference in expression, meaning, or
response.
Example: Light lime green and lime green.
Helping verbs Definition: Help the main verb in a sentence by extending
the meaning of the verb.
Example: It was raining when we got to Portland.
Linking verbs Definition: a verb that connects a subject with a noun or
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

adjective that is the subject.

Example: They are cold.
Coordinating Definition: a group of words having its own subject and predicate
Adjectives Example: When it rained, they went inside.
Clause 1 Clause 2
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
punctuation Marks 1
Period Definition: Punctuation at the end of a
declaration or imperative sentence; also used at
the end of abbreviations.
Example: Mr., Mrs., misc., etc.

Comma Definition: Punctuation used for indicating a

division in a sentence, especially when such a
division is accompanied by a slight pause.
Example: Although she was late, she was an
excellent addition.

exclamation Definition: Punctuation used especially after an

interjection or exclamation to indicate forceful
point utterance or strong feeling
Example: Hurry up or we’re going to be late!

Question Definition: Punctuation used to ask a question

mark Example: Where are you going?

Parentheses Definition: Information in parentheses is not

essential to the meaning of the original sentence.

punctuation
Marks 1
It is given as additional, or extra, information.
Example: The president (and his assistant)
traveled by private jet.
Incorrect: The president (and his assistant) were
arriving at 10:00 a.m.
quotation Definition: Punctuation marks used to begin or
end a quotation. Titles of things go in quotations if
marks
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

it is a small piece of something larger.

Example: Mrs. Cahill repeatedly says, “Joseph
and Chris sit down.”
Example 2: My favorite episode of The Big Bang
Theory is “The Cognition Regeneration.”
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
punctuation Marks 2
Definition: A punctuation mark (:) used to introduce a
Colon
description, an explanation, or a list.
Example: The little boy announced that he wanted the
following for his birthday: two sweaters, a new tent, and
three toy cars.

semi-colon Definition: The punctuation mark (;) used to indicate a

major division in a sentence where a more distinct
separation is felt between clauses or items on a list than
is indicated by a comma; between the two clauses of
a compound sentence.
Example: Dad is going bald; his hair is getting thinner
and thinner.

Apostrophe Definition: a punctuation mark ( ’ ) used to indicate

either possession or the omission of letters or
numbers (i.e., contractions).
Example: Harry's book ; boys' coats; can’t
Ellipses Definition: a literary device that is used in narratives
to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which
gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while
acting or reading it out
Example: So…what happened?
Dash Definition: is a mark of punctuation used to set off a
word or phrase after an independent clause or to
set off a parenthetical remark
Example: By trying we can easily learn to endure
adversity—another man's, I mean.
punctuation
Marks 2
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Hyphen Definition: the sign -, used to join words to indicate

that they have a combined meaning or that they
are linked in the grammar of a sentence
Example: She hyphenates her first name, Anne-
Marie.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
 figurative language

Figurative
language
Simile Definition: Compares two unlike things using “like” or “as.”
Example: “Myra's head is as empty as a flower pot.”
Metaphor Definition: Comparing two things that are not alike to suggest
they have something in common.
Example: “It was said that Green Lake was ”Heaven on earth"
and Miss Katherine's peaches were "food for the angels.”
Hyperboles Definition: an exaggeration that can’t possibly be true.

Example: “Mama was crying, and the rain made it seem as if

the whole world was crying.”
Alliterations Definition: The repetition of beginning consonant sounds in
two or more neighboring words or syllables.
Example: Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Pepper.
Onomatopoeia Definition: Naming a thing or an action by imitating the
sound associated with it.
Example: ”Boom” or “buzz.”
Personification Definition: Giving something unhuman, actual human
qualities.
Example: “The plane went into a glide, a very fast glide that
ate altitude, and suddenly there weren't any lakes.”
Idioms Definition: An expression of two or more words that means
something other than the actual or literal meaning.

Example: "I go, 'You must have ants in your pants,' and he
gets this funny look.
Allusion Definition: An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a
reference to a place, person, or event.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

Example: “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo”

is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo.
Adage Definition: a proverb or short statement expressing a general
truth.
Example: "Slow and steady wins the race."
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
Words and language
Homophones Definition: two or more words having the same
pronunciation but different meanings, origins, or

Words and
language
spelling.
Example: new and knew.

homonyms Definition: two or more words having the same

spelling but different meanings and origins.
Example: “Pen.” This can mean both a holding area
for animals and a writing instrument

homographs Definition: two or more words spelled the same but

not necessarily pronounced the same and having
different meanings and origins.
Example: wind: The wind blew the sign over. She
bought him a wind-up toy.

synonyms Definition: a word or phrase that means exactly or

nearly the same as another word or phrase in the
same language
Example: Shut and close

antonyms Definition: A word opposite in meaning to another.

Example: Bad and good

Denotations Definition: The literal dictionary definition of a word

Example: Chick-literally means a "baby bird," but is
often used as a somewhat derogatory term for a
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

woman.

Connotation Definition: an idea or feeling that a word invokes

Example: Mule-literally a mix between a donkey and
a horse. Used to refer to a stubborn person.

martina cahill- the hungry teacher

verbs Definition: used to make factual statements, ask
Indicative
questions, or express opinions as if they were facts
Mood verb
Example: Colin sings us a song.

Imperative Definition: forms commands or requests, including

the giving of prohibition or permission
mood verb
Example: Sing us a song.

Interrogative Definition: Asks a question

Mood verb
Example: Do you think Colin will sing us a song?

Conditional Definition: shows under what conditions something

might happen

verbs
Mood verb
Example: I might be able to reach him if I call his
cell phone

Subjunctive Definition: expresses a condition which is doubtful

or not factual.
Mood verb
Example: If I were President, I wouldn’t put up
with it.

Gerund Definition: A gerund is a type of verbal that ends in -

ing and is used like a noun
verbal
Example: Jumping is fun.

Participle Defintion: a verb that ends in -ing (present participle)

or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle). Participles may
verbal function as adjectives, describing or modifying
nouns.
Example: The dancing parrots entertained the
martina cahill- the hungry teacher

crowd.

Infinitive Definition: the base form of a verb with to. Usually it

functions as a noun, although it can also function as
Verbal an adjective or adverb
Example: To jump is fun.
martina cahill- the hungry teacher
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