Chapter 1

I.C. ENGINES
Four & Two stroke engine - SI & CI engines - Valve and
Port Timing Diagrams - Fuel injection Systems for SI engines -
Fuel injection systems for CI engines- Ignition - Cooling and
Lubrication system - Fuel properties and Combustion
Stoichiometry.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat engines: Heat engine is a type of engine or machine
which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuel or
any other source and converts this into mechanical energy.
Heat engines are generally classifed as
1. External combustion engines (E.C. Engines)
2. Internal combustion engines (I.C. Engines)

If the combustion of fuel takes place inside the

cylinder, then the engine is known an Internal
combustion engine (or) IC engine.

Example: Petrol engine, Diesel engine, Oil and Gas

engines.
If the combustion of fuel takes place outside the
cylinder, then engine is known External combustion
engine.

Example: Steam engine, Steam turbine.

1.2 BASIC TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES

1. Bore. The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as
the bore and it is measured in mm.
1.2 Thermal Engineering - I

2. Stroke. It is the distance travelled by the piston

between two dead centre positions.
3. Dead Centers. They correspond to the position occupied
by the piston at the end of its stroke where the centre lines
of the connecting rod and crank are in the same straight
line. These conditions arise for two positions of the piston.
For vertical engine these are known as Top Dead Centre
(TDC) position and Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) position and
for horizontal engines, these positions are known as Inner
Dead Centre (IDC) position and Outer Dead Centre (ODC)
position (Refer Fig 1.1 (a)&(b))

C O N N EC TIN G R O D
C Y L IN D ER C R AN K R AD IU S,r
B O R E -d

IDC O D C
S W EP T V O LU M E S TR OK E
VS LE N G TH
L=2r
C L E AR AN C E V O LU M E V C
Fig.1.1 (a) P iston in O D C positio n
B O R E -d

IDC O D C
S TR OK E
LE N G TH
L=2r
Fig. 1.1 (b) P iston in ID C po sition
 IC Engines 1.3

4. Top Dead Centre (TDC). The top most position of the

piston towards the cover end side of the cylinder of a
vertical engine is called Top Dead centre (TDC) position.
5. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC). The lowest position of
the piston towards the crank end side of the cylinder of a
vertical engine is known as Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)
position.

6. Crank Throw or Crank Radius. The distance

between the centre of main shaft and centre of crank pin
is known as crank throw or crank radius. This distance
will be equal to half of the stroke length.

7. Piston Displacement or Swept Volume. It is the

volume through which the piston sweeps for its one stroke.
Mathematically, it is equal to the area of cross-section of
the piston multiplied by its stroke length.

8. Clearance Volume. It is the volume included between

the piston and the cylinder head when the piston is at its
Top Dead Centre (in-vertical engine) or Inner Dead Centre
(in horizontal engine).

The piston never enters this portion of the cylinder

during its travel. The clearance volume is generally
expressed as percentage of the swept volume and is denoted
by vc.

9. Compression Ratio. It is the ratio of the total cylinder

volume to the clearance volume.

V s  Swept Volume

V c  Clearance volume

r  Compression ratio
1.4 Thermal Engineering - I

Then, the total cylinder volume  Vs  Vc

Vs  Vc
and Compression ratio, r 
Vc

For petrol engines the value of compression ratio

varies from 5:1 to 9:1 and for Diesel engines from 14:1 to
22:1.

10. Piston Speed. It is the distance travelled by piston

in one minute.

If RPM of engine shaft  N and

Length of stroke  L metre,
Then piston speed  2 LN metre/min.

1.3 FOUR STROKE SI (PETROL) ENGINE

Working Of Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engine
The number of strokes required to complete the
reciprocating engine cycle is four and hence this name four
stroke cycle. The work is obtained only during one stroke
out of these for a single cylinder engine or for every
cylinder individually for a multi-cylinder engine. These
strokes are as follows (Refer Fig. 1.2)

1. Suction or Induction Stroke. [Fig. 1.2 (a)]. During

this stroke, the inlet valve stays open and the exhaust valve
is closed. The piston is moved downward from Top Dead
Centre (TDC) by means of crankshaft which is revolved by
the momentum of the flywheel or by power generated by
the electric starting motor. This movement increases the
size of combustion space thereby reducing the pressure in
it with the result that the higher pressure of the outside
atmosphere forces the air into the combustion space.
 IC Engines 1.5

S park P lug
E xha u st
In le t Valve Valve
In le t p ort E xha u st port

C ylind er

P iston
C ra nk Ca se
C ra nk Sh aft
C onn ecting
R od R

(a )S u ction stro ke (b ) C o mp ressio n stroke

(c) P o wer stroke (d ) E xha ust stroke

Fig. 1.2 Four S troke S park Ignition Engine

A carburetor is put in the passage of incoming air

which supplies a metered quantity of fuel to this air. This
air fuel mixture thus comes into the engine cylinder.
2. Compression Stroke. [Fig 1.2 (b)]. The air fuel
mixture sucked in during the suction stroke is compressed
during this upward stroke. The compression forces the fuel
into closer combination with air. The heat produced during
this compression stroke aids the combustion of fuel. Just a
little before the end of compression stroke, the mixture is
ignited by a spark produced by the spark plug. Both the
inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke.
1.6 Thermal Engineering - I

3. Working or Power Stroke. [Fig. 1.2 (c)]. Both inlet

and exhaust vales remain closed during this stroke. The
mixture of fuel and air which burns at the end of
compression stroke expands due to the heat of combustion.
It exerts pressure in the cylinder and on the piston and
under this impulse, the piston moves downward thus doing
useful work.
4. Exhaust stroke. [Fig 1.2 (d)]. The inlet valve remains
closed while the exhaust valve opens. The greater part of
the burnt gases escape because of their own expansion. The
upward movement of the piston pushes the remaining gases
out of the open exhaust valve.

This cycle or series of events takes place over and

over again thus delivering power.

Theoretically speaking, the inlet valve opens at the

beginning of suction stroke and closes at the end of this
stroke. Both the valves remain closed at compression and
power strokes. The exhaust valve opens at the beginning
of exhaust stroke and closes at the end of same stroke.

1.4 FOUR STROKE CI ENGINE

WORKING OF A FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

This engine works on Diesel cycle or constant
pressure cycle. Heavy motor vehicles, stationary power
plants, big industrial units and ships mostly employ this
engine. The Diesel or Compression ignition engine which
mostly uses Diesel oil [light and heavy] as fuel differs from
a petrol engine in that in the latter the air fuel mixture
after being compressed in the engine cylinder to a high
pressure, is ignited by an electric spark from a spark plug
 IC Engines 1.7

p
3

2 ATM O SP H E R IC
P R E SSU R E

b 4
5 a 1

o v
Fig. 1.3 Actual pv- diagram
of four stroke cycle Diesel engine

p 2 3

E X HA U ST
1
S U CTIO N
o v
Fig . 1.4 Hypoth etical pv- d iag ram of a fo ur
stro ke D iesel cycle eng in e

while in the former the fuel is ignited by being injected

into the engine cylinder containing air compressed to a very
high pressure, the temperature of this air is sufficiently
high to ignite the fuel. There is no spark plug in a Diesel
engine. The temperature of the air compressed itself is
1.8 Thermal Engineering - I

sufficient to ignite the fuel which in the form of very fine

spray is injected at a controlled rate so that the combustion
proceeds at constant pressure.
1. Suction Stroke (5-a-3). The piston moves down from
the top centre Position. The air is drawn into the cylinder
through the inlet valve which closes at the end of this
stroke. The exhaust valve remains closed during this stroke.

2. Compression Strokes (3-4). The piston moves up

from the bottom dead centre position. The inlet valve is
also now closed. The air drawn into the cylinder in the
previous stroke is entrapped inside the cylinder and
compressed with the upward movement of the piston. As
the compression ratio used in this engine is high (14 to
22), the air is finally compressed to a pressure as high as
40 bar at which its temperature is high - as high as
1000 C enough to ignite the fuel.

3. Constant Pressure Stroke (4-1). As the piston moves

after reaching top dead centre the fuel is injected into the
hot compressed air where it starts burning, maintaining
the pressure constant. At the point 1 the fuel supply is
cut-off. Theoretically, the fuel is injected at the end of
compression stroke and injection continues till the point of
cut-off. In actual practice, the ignition starts before the end
of compression stroke to take care of ignition lag.

4. Power or Working Stroke (1-2). Both inlet and

exhaust valves remain closed during the stroke. The hot
gases and air now expand adiabatically to the point 2, in
the engine cylinder pushing the piston down and hence
doing work. The piston finally reaches the bottom dead
centre.
 IC Engines 1.9

5. Exhaust Stroke (3-b-5). The piston now moves up

once again. The inlet and fuel valves are closed but the
exhaust valve opens. A greater part of the burnt gases
escape due to their own expansion. The upward movement
of the piston pushes the remaining gases out through the
open exhaust valve. Only a small quantity of exhaust gases
stay in the combustion chamber. The exhaust valve closes
at the end of exhaust stroke. The cycle is thus completed.

1.5 WORKING OF TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE

There is one working stroke in one cycle of four stroke
cycle engine, ie. in two revolutions of the crankshaft. The
desire to have one working stroke per cylinder for every
revolution of the crankshaft had led to the development of
two stroke cycle engines.
Two stroke cycle engines are very widely employed
for small power required for motor pads (auto cycles)
scooters and motor cycles because of compactness and ease
in manufacture and being simpler although the specific fuel
consumption (S.F.C.), i.e., the fuel consumption per bp kW
hour is more,
In a two stroke cycle engine, the suction and
exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here the burnt exhaust
gases are forced out through the exhaust port by a fresh
charge of the fuel which enters the cylinder nearly at the
end of the working stroke through inlet port. The process
is termed as scavenging. There are no inlet and exhaust
valves as in a four stroke engine but we have inlet and
exhaust ports only.
1.10 Thermal Engineering - I

1.6 WORKING OF TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Fig.1.5 shows a two stroke petrol engine commonly
used in motor cycles. It has no valves but consists of the
inlet or induction port (IP), exhaust port (EP) and a third
port called the transfer port (TP).
Referring to Fig.1.5 (a) let the piston be nearing the
completion of its compression stroke as shown.
The ignition starts due to the spark given by the
spark plug and the piston is pushed down [Fig.1.5 (b) and

S p ark P lu g
S p ark P lu g
C o m p re ss ed .. ........ .......... ....
.. ............... . .... C h arg e .............
............ ........... ......... .. . . ..
. . . ... ..........
...........
....... . . ........... . .....
.
... ...

P iston P iston
Tra nsfe r Tra nsfe r
E xha u st P o rt
P o rt E xha u st P o rt P o rt
In le t P ort O pe n In le t P ort O pe n

C ra nk C a se

(a ) (b )

... ..
.......................................... .... .. . . ........
.......................... .. . ....
......
............. ....... ........
............. .. .... ..... ....... ...................
... ........
.
. .. . ...
.........
...... .. .
.................. .... ................ .
....... . .. . ................
. ........
. .. . . .. . .. .. . .. .
Tra nsfe r .......................................................... E xha u st P o rt O p en
P o rt O p en ............... . .... ...........
.
Tra nsfe r
In le t P ort P o rt E xha u st P o rt
In le t P ort

(d )
(c) Fig. 1.5 Tw o stro ke petrol en gin e
 IC Engines 1.11

(c)] performing the working stroke and in doing so, the air
fuel mixture already drawn from the inlet port inside crank
case in the previous stroke is compressed to a high
pressure. When about four-fifth of this stroke is completed,
the exhaust port (EP) is uncovered slightly and some of the
charge of burnt gases escape to the atmosphere.
Immediately afterwards as the exhaust port is uncovered
by the further downward movement of the piston, the
transfer port (IP) which is only very slightly lower than
(EP) is also uncovered as shown in Fig.1.5 (c) and a charge
of compressed fuel air mixture enters the cylinder and
further pushes out the burnt gases out of the exhaust port
(EP). The top of the piston is made of a particular shape
that facilitates the deflection of the fresh charge upwards
and thus avoids its escape along with the exhaust gases.
After reaching the bottom dead centre, when the piston
moves up it first closes the transfer port (TP) and then the
exhaust port EP. The charge of fuel which previously entered
the cylinder, is now compressed. Simultaneously there is a
fall of pressure in the crank case creating a partial vacuum.
When the piston is nearing its upward movement, the inlet
port opens and a fresh charge of air fuel mixture from the
carburetor enters the crank case. After the ignition of the
charge takes place, the piston moves down for the power
stroke and the cycle is repeated as before.
2. Two Stroke Cycle Compression Ignition Engine
In a two smoke cycle compression ignition engine, all
the operations are exactly the same as those in the spark
ignition except that in this case, only air is taken in instead
of air fuel mixture and the fuel is injected at the end of
1.12 Thermal Engineering - I

compression stroke, a fuel injector being fitted instead of a

spark plug.

1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

IC Engines are classified as follows

1. According to type of fuel used

(a) Petrol engine
(b) Diesel engine
(c) Gas engine.
2. According to the ignition method used
(a) Spark Ignition engine (SI engine)
(b) Compression Ignition engine (CI engine).
3. According to number of strokes per cycle
(a) Four stroke engine
(b) Two stroke engine.
4. According to Air standard cycle
(a) Otto cycle engine
(b) Diesel cycle engine
(c) Dual cycle engine.
5. According to number of cylinders used
(a) Single cylinder engine
(b) Multi cylinder engine.
6. According to position of cylinder
(a) Horizontal engine
(b) Vertical engine
(c) Radial engine
(d) ‘V’ engine.
 IC Engines 1.13

7. According to fuel supply system

(a) Carburetor engine
(b) Air-injection engine
(c) Airless injection (or) Solid injection engine.
8. According to cooling system used
(a) Air cooled engine
(b) Water cooled engine.
9. According to speed of engine
(a) Slow speed engine
(b) Medium speed engine
(c) High speed engine.
10. According to location of valves
(a) Overhead valve engine
(b) Side valve engine.
(c) L-head type engine
(d) T-head type engine
(e) F-head type engine
11. According to their uses
(a) Aircraft engines
(b) Marine engines
(c) Automobile engines etc.

1.8 IC ENGINE COMPONENTS – FUNCTIONS AND

MATERIALS
A cross section of water cooled IC engine with
principal parts is shown in the Fig. 1.6. The major
components of IC engine are as follows.

I. Components common to both Petrol and Diesel engines

1.14 Thermal Engineering - I

Va lv e R o c k e r
P u s h rod
Va lv e s p rin g

C om bu s tio n
c h a m be r

Va lv e
S p a rk p lu g

G u d g eo n p in

W a te r ja c k e t
P is to n

P isto n
C on ne c

ring s

Ta p pe t
tin g ro d

C ylin d er

C am
k
an
Cr

C am sh aft

C ra nk pin

C ra nk c as e
Fig. 1 .6 C ros s se c tio na l of w a ter c o ole d S .I E ng in e

1. Cylinder 2. Piston
3. Cylinder head 4. Piston rings
5. Gudgeon pin 6. Connecting rod
7. Crank 8. Crankshaft
9. Bearings 10. Crank case
11. Flywheel 12. Governor
13. Valves or port mechanisms.
II. Components for petrol engine only
(a) Spark plug (b) Carburetor (c) Fuel pump
 IC Engines 1.15

III. Components for Diesel engines only

(i) Fuel pump (ii) Fuel injector

1. Cylinder
The cylinder is the closed part which contains the gas
mixture under pressure and guides the piston. The
combustion of the gas mixture takes place inside the
cylinder. The ideal form of cylinder consists of a plain
cylinder barrel with a liner material in which the piston
slides.

The movement of the piston or stroke is longer than

the diameter or bore of cylinder. The ratio of stroke to bore
is called stroke bore ratio. The upper end consists of a
combustion or clearance space in which the ignition and
combustion of the charge takes place. Since a large amount
of energy is generated during combustion, therefore it has
to be cooled. Generally IC engines are water cooled or air
cooled engines.

The cylinder is made up of hard grade cast iron and

is usually cast in one piece.

2. Cylinder head
One end of cylinder is closed by means of a removable
cylinder head which usually contains the inlet valve for
admitting the gas mixture and exhaust valve for
discharging the products of combustion. These two valves
are operated by means of cam mechanisms geared to the
engine shaft. The passage in the cylinder head leading to
and from the valves are called ports. The pipes which
connect the inlet ports of the various cylinders to a common
intake pipe for the engine is called the inlet manifold. If
1.16 Thermal Engineering - I

the exhaust ports are similarly connected to a common

exhaust system, this system is called exhaust manifold.
The main purpose of the cylinder head is to seal the
working ends of the cylinders and not to permit entry and
exit of gases to engine. The inside cavity of cylinder head
is called the combustion chamber. Its shape controls the
direction and rate of combustion.

The cylinder head is usually made up of cast iron or

aluminium.

3. Piston
A piston is fitted to each cylinder to receive gas
pressure and transmit the force to the connecting rod. The
piston must provide the following

(a) Give tight seal to the cylinder through bore;

(b) Slide freely; (c) Be light; (d) Be strong.

The piston wall called skirt must be strong enough

to withstand the side thrust.

Pistons are made up of cast iron or aluminium alloy

for lightness. Light alloy pistons expand more than cast
iron and therefore need large clearance to the bore.

4. Piston rings
Pistons are generally loose fit with cylinders to avoid
the sticking of piston to cylinder during expansion on
combustion. To provide a good sealing fit between piston
and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. They
are split at one point so that they can be expanded and
slipped over the end of the piston and into rings grooves
which have cut in the piston. During installation, the rings
are compressed into the grooves and split ends come almost
 IC Engines 1.17

together. The rings fit tightly against the cylinder wall and
against the sides of the ring grooves in the piston. These
rings can expand or contract as they heat and cool and still
make a good seal. Thus they are free to slide up and down
the cylinder wall.
Small two stroke cycle engines have two rings on the
piston. Both are compression rings. Four stroke cycle
engines have an extra ring called the oil control ring. Four
stroke cycle engines are so constructed that they get much
oil in the cylinder wall than two stroke cycle engines.

These rings are usually made up of cast iron or alloy

steel.

5. Gudgeon pin (Or Wrist pin or Piston pin)

These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted
through the piston bosses and the small end bushes or eyes
to allow the connecting rods to swivel. Gudgeon pins are
press fit and heated in hot oil or water bath to remove it.
Gudgeon pins are made hollow for lightness.

6. Connecting Rod
Connecting rod transmits the piston load to the crank,
causing the latter to turn, thus converting the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motions of crankshaft.

Connecting Rods are made up of Nickel, Chromium

and Vanadium steels.

7. Crank
The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to
rotatory motion on the wheels by using connecting rod and
crank assembly. The connecting rod connects the piston to
crank. The crank is made up of steel forging.
1.18 Thermal Engineering - I

8. Crankshaft 1 4
Crank is a part of
the crankshaft. The
crankshaft of an IC
engine receives efforts
via cranks supplied by
the pistons through the Fig. 1.7
2 3
connecting rods. All the
engines auxiliary mechanisms with mechanical
transmission are geared in one way or the another to the
crankshaft.
The crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion of
piston to rotary motion of wheels. The crankshaft are
mounted in bearings which encircle the journals so it can
rotate freely. The Fig. 1.7 shows a typical crankshaft layout
for a 4 cylinder engine.
It is usually a steel forging or cast iron like spheroidal
graphite or nickel alloy castings.
9. Engine Bearings
The crankshaft is supported by bearings. The
connecting rod big end is attached to the crank pin on the
crank of the crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the
small end is used to attach the rod to the piston. The piston
pin rides in bearings. Bearings are used to support the
moving parts. The purpose of bearings is to reduce the
friction and allow the parts to move easily. Bearings are
lubricated with oil to make the relative motion easier.
Usually sleeve bearings are used for most engine
applications. Some engines use ball and roller bearings to
 IC Engines 1.19

support the crankshaft and for the connecting rod and

piston-pin bearings.

10. Crank Case

The main body of engine to which the cylinders are
attached and which contains the crankshaft and its
bearings is called crank case. This member also holds other
parts in alignment and resists the explosion and inertia
forces. It also protects the parts from dirt etc and serves
as a part of lubricating system.

11. Fly wheel

A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. It is made
up of steel or cast iron disc. It performs the following
functions: It stores energy required to rotate the shaft
during preparatory strokes and provides uniform crankshaft
rotation.

12. Governor
A governor is defined as a device for regulating
automatically the output of a machine by regulating the
supply of working fluid to the variation of loads. When the
load on the engine increases, the speed reduces and there is
an increase in supply of fluid and when the load on the
engine reduces, the speed increases and the fluid supply is
reduced. This is controlled by governor. Thus the function of
a governor is to control the fluctuations of engine speed due
to changes in load.

13. Valves and Valve Operating Mechanisms

The inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engines
are controlled by poppet valves. These valves are held to
their seating by strong springs, and as the valves usually
open inwards, the pressure in cylinder helps to keep them
1.20 Thermal Engineering - I

closed. The valve gear mechanisms are shown in the Fig.

1.6. It consists of poppet valve, the steam bushings or
guide, valve spring, spring retainer, lifter or push rod,
camshaft and half speed gear for a 4 stroke engine. The
timing of the valves, i.e. their opening and closing with
respect to the travel of the piston is very important thing
for efficient working of the engines. The drive of the
camshaft is arranged through gears or chain and sprocket
called timing gear.
1.8.1 COMPARISON OF FOUR-STROKE AND TWO
STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
S.
Title/Aspect 4 Stroke Engine 2 Stroke Engine
No
1. Cycle The cycle gets The cycle is
completed in 4 completed in 2
strokes or in two strokes or in one
revolutions of crank revolution of
shaft. crankshaft.
2. Power produced The power produced The power produced
is small since one is large since one
power stroke for 2 power stroke for one
revolutions of revolution.
crankshaft.
3. Flywheel size Heavier flywheel is Lighter flywheel is
required since non required since
uniform turning uniform turning
moment. moment.
4. Cooling and Since one power One power stroke for
Lubrication stroke per two one revolution - high
revolution less cooling cooling and
and lubrication is lubrication system is
required. required.
 IC Engines 1.21

S.
Title/Aspect 4 Stroke Engine 2 Stroke Engine
No
5. Valve and Valve and valve Port mechanisms are
Valve mechanisms are present in 2 stroke.
Mechanism present in 4 stroke
engine.
6. Initial cost Initial cost is high Initial cost is low
but running cost is but running cost is
low. more.
7. Volumetric High volumetric Low volumetric
Efficiency efficiency. efficiency.
8. Part load Better than that of Poor than that of 4
efficiency 2 stroke engine. stroke engine.
9. Thermal High thermal Comparatively lower
efficiency efficiency. thermal efficiency.
10. Applications Used in cars, buses, Used in scooters,
trucks, industrial motor cycles, lawn
engines, aeroplane, movers etc.,.
generators etc.
11. Compactness Heavy and High Compact engine.
engine.
1.8.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN PETROL ENGINE
AND DIESEL ENGINE
Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
(a) During suction stroke, the During suction stroke, only
mixture of air and petrol is air is sucked in the engine
sucked in the engine cylinder. cylinder.
(b) The petrol engine works on The diesel engine works on
Otto cycle diesel cycle
(c) In petrol engine, spark plug In diesel engine, fuel injector
is used to ignite the charge is used. The fuel burns by
with an electric spark. the heat of compressed air.
1.22 Thermal Engineering - I

Petrol Engine Diesel Engine

(d) Here carburetor is used Here fuel injector is used to
which supplies the mixture inject the diesel
of air and petrol in correct
proportion
(e) The compression ratio is The compression ratio in
upto 11. Average diesel engine varies from
compression ratio in petrol 12:1 to 22:1
engine varies from 5:1 to 9:1
(f) Due to lower compression Due to higher compression
ratio, petrol engines are ratio, diesel engines are
light and less stronger than heavier and stronger than
diesel engine. petrol engines
(g) There is a chance of As only air is compressed
pre-ignition during compression stroke,
there is no chance of
pre-ignition
(h) Air standard efficiency is Air standard efficiency is
lower due to lower higher due to higher
compression ratio compression ratio.
(i) The initial cost of petrol The initial cost of diesel
engine is less but the engine is high but the
running cost is high because running cost is low as the
the cost of petrol is more cost of diesel is less.
than diesel.
(j) Petrol engines are used in Diesel engines are used in
cars, scooters and motorcycles heavy duty vehicles like
trucks, buses and locomotive
engines.
(k) It occupies less space. It occupies more space.
(l) Maintenance cost is less. It is having more parts. So
maintenance cost is high.
(m) Thermal efficiency upto 25% Thermal efficiency upto 40%
 IC Engines 1.23

1.8.3 Advantages of two stroke cycle engines over

four stroke cycle engines
1. The two stroke cycle engine gives one working
stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft. So the
power developed by two stroke cycle engine is twice
that developed by four stroke cycle engine for the
same engine speed and cylinder volume.
2. The turning moment on the crankshaft is more even
in 2 stroke engine and so a lighter flywheel is
required in it.
3. A two stroke engine is more compact, light and
requires less space than a four stroke cycle engine
for the same power. So it is more suitable for auto,
motor cycles and scooters.
4. Weight of engine is less due to absence of valves.
5. It has high mechanical efficiency due to the absence
of cams, cam shaft and rockers etc.
6. It requires fewer spare parts due to its simple
design.
1.8.4 Disadvantages
1. The air standard efficiency of two stroke cycle
engine is less than four stroke cycle engine because
the compression ratio of the two stroke cycle engine
is less than that of four stroke cycle engine.
2. A portion of the fresh air-petrol mixture (in case of
S.I. engine) escapes unused through the exhaust
port. So, the specific fuel consumption is higher. So,
overall efficiency is less.
1.24 Thermal Engineering - I

3. In two stroke cycle engines, the piston gets over

heated due to firing in each revolution and oil
cooling of the piston is necessary.
4. The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two
stroke cycle engine because of high operating
temperature.
5. The fresh charge is mixed by the burnt gases due
to incomplete scavenging.
6 There is greater wear and tear of moving parts.

1.9 VALVE TIMING AND PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS

Review of Actual Cycle (Actual Indicator Diagram)
for 4-stroke Petrol Engine
The actual cycle (actual indicator diagram) for a
4-stroke cycle petrol engine is shown in Fig.1.8 (a). This
diagram is drawn for one complete cycle ie for two complete
revolutions of the crank. The theoretical P-V diagram of a
4-stroke petrol engine (otto cycle) is also shown in Fig. 1.8
(b) for comparison.
p

3
3
p

A tm os phe ric
Exp pre ssure
2 ans
io n
co m 2
pres
s io n 4 4
ex ha ust b ex ha ust
5
5 suction 1 1
a suction v
v
O
O
(a) A c tual p -v d ia gram o f fo ur
stroke O tto cyc le en gin e
Fig. 1.8
 IC Engines 1.25

1. Suction Stroke 5  a  1: The suction stroke is

shown by the line 5  a  1. The piston moves down from
the Top Dead Centre (TDC). The pressure inside the
cylinder is below the atmospheric pressure. So the air-fuel
mixture flows into the engine cylinder through the inlet
valve. At end of this stroke, the inlet valve closes. The
exhaust valve remains closed during this suction stroke.
2. Compression Stroke 1  2: The piston moves up
from BDC to TDC. The inlet valve closes (IVC) at the end
of suction stroke (or) a little before compression stroke
starts. The air is compressed with the upward movement
of the piston. At the end of this stroke, the air attains high
pressure.

3. Expansion (or) working Stroke 3  4: A short

time before the end of the compression stroke i.e., (TDC)
the air-fuel mixture is ignited (IGN) by the spark plug.
During ignition, the volume remains constant. Both valves
are closed. Due to this ignition, the pressure and
temperature of the charge is enormously increased. This
explosion pushes the piston to BDC. A little before BDC,
the exhaust valve opens. (EVO).

4. Exhaust Stroke 1  b  5: The burnt gases are

exhausted to the atmosphere in this stroke. The piston
moves from BDC to TDC to send the burnt gases out of
the cylinder, through exhaust valve. During this stroke, the
inlet valve is in closed position.

In actual cycle, the corners are rounded off, because

the inlet and outlet valves do not open and close suddenly
but they take sometime to do so. Because of the resistance
of the inlet valve to the entering charge, the actual pressure
1.26 Thermal Engineering - I

inside the cylinder during suction stroke is slightly less

than the atmospheric pressure. Similarly, because of the
resistance of the exhaust valve to the burnt gases leaving
the cylinder, the actual pressure inside the cylinder during
exhaust stroke is slightly higher than the atmospheric
pressure. The hatched area called as negative loop
5  a  1  b  5 is shown in actual cycle. This negative
loop is subtracted from the larger loop (called positive loop)
to get the net workdone during a cycle.
1.9.1 Valve Timing Diagram for a 4-Stroke Cycle
Petrol Engine
The actual valve timing diagram is shown in Fig.1.9.
At the end of exhaust stroke (or) before the beginning of
the suction stroke, the inlet valve opens (IVO) 10 to 20 in
advance of the TDC position to facilitate the inflow of fresh
charge and outflow of burnt gases. When the piston reaches
the TDC, the suction stroke starts. The piston moves down
and reaches BDC position and then it moves up. A little
beyond the BDC, the inlet valve closes (IVC). i.e. The inlet
valve closes (IVC) at 30 to 40 after BDC.

Now during further upward movement, the piston

compresses the charge (with both valves closed).
The spark is produced at 30 to 40 before the TDC
position to give time for the fuel to ignite. (IGN)
Due to ignition, the pressure rises up, the burnt gases
pushes the piston downwards during expansion stroke.
Now the exhaust valve open (EVO) before the piston
reaches the BDC position. i.e. The exhaust valve opens
 IC Engines 1.27

TD C

E .V.C

T
AR
ST
I ON I.V.O
T
NI

o
35 SU
IG
T

IG N
US

CT
o
20

IO
EX HA

M P R E S SI ON

E X PA N
CO

o
35

SIO
o
35

N
I.V.C
E .V.O

Fig. 1.9 Actual valve tim ing diagram for Petrol (Otto) four stroke engine

(EVO) at 30 to 50 before BDC to enable the burnt gases

leave the cylinder.
Now the piston reaches BDC and then it moves up
to perform the exhaust stroke.
The exhaust valve opens till the piston reaches TDC
and then it moves down for suction stroke (i.e. till the
piston is about 8  10 past the TDC). So the exhaust valve
closes (EVC) at 8  10 past the TDC.
1.28 Thermal Engineering - I

But before starting of suction stroke, the inlet valve

opens (IVO) at 15 10  20 before TDC. For a fraction of
time, both inlet and exhaust valve are open. The angle
between the position of the crank at the inlet valve opening
and that at the exhaust valve closing is known as the
angle of valve overlap or simply valve overlap.
Review of Actual Cycle for Four Stroke Cycle Diesel
Engine (Diesel Cycle)
The Fig.1.10 (i) and (ii) shows the theoretical and
actual cycle (P-V diagram) for four stroke cycle diesel
engine. The actual cycle differs from the theoretical one. In
actual cycle, the corners are rounded off because the inlet
and exhaust valve do not open and close all of a sudden
but they take sometime to do so.
Due to the resistance of the inlet valve to the entering
fresh air, the actual pressure inside the cylinder during
suction stroke is slightly less than the atmospheric
pressure.

2 3 2 3
p ressure

4
p ress ure

5 4
Ex hau st Ex hau st b
b
5 1 5
Su ctio n Su ctio n a
a
Vo lum e Vo lum e
(i) Fig.1.10 (ii)
(i) Theoretical and (ii) Actual P-V diagram for
a four stroke diesel engine
 IC Engines 1.29

Similarly, due to the resistance of the exhaust valve

to the exhaust gases leaving the cylinder, the actual
pressure inside the cylinder during exhaust stroke is
slightly higher than the atmospheric pressure. This gives
small hatched area 5  a  1  b  5 in the form of a loop
(called negative loop). This negative loop area is subtracted
from the area of the larger loop (positive loop) to get net
workdone during a cycle.

1.9.2 Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

The actual valve timing diagram of a 4-stroke diesel
engine is shown in Fig.1.11.

The inlet valve opens (IVO) at 10 to 25 before TDC

position and inlet valve closes (IVC) after BDC position.

Fuel Injection Valve (FIVO) opens at 5 to 10 before

TDC position and fuel injection valve closes (FIVC) at
15 to 25 after TDC position.

Exhaust valve opens (EVO) at 30 to 50 before BDC

position and exhaust valve closes (EVC) at 10 to 15 after
TDC position.

1.9.3 Port Timing Diagram of Two Stroke Cycle

Petrol Engine
The corners are rounded off since inlet port and
exhaust port are covered and uncovered not in all of a
sudden. Covering and uncovering ports take sometime.

Port Timing Diagram

Step 1: Transfer port closes when crank angle is at 50
after BDC (Suction stroke is accomplished during 120 of
crank rotation. i.e. The angle between “transfer port opens”
and “Transfer port closes” is 120.)
1.30 Thermal Engineering - I

T.D.C

E.V.C(Exha ust Valve C loses)

e
V a lv
on
e c ti
l In j
( F u e n s ) F.I.V.O
O pe F.I.V.C (Fu el Injection
o
5 15
o
Va lve C loses)

I.V.O

Ex
(In le t Va lve

pa
o
25
O pe ns)

Su

ns
o
25

ion
c ti
on
C om pres sion
E xh au st

o
45
o
30

I.V.C
(In le t E.V.O (Exha ust
Valve C loses) Valve O p ens)

B.D.C

Fig. 1.11 Valve tim ing diagram of a four stro ke diesel en gine

Step 2: Exhaust port closes when crank angle is at 60

after BDC. i.e. A little time after transfer port closes, the
exhaust port closes.
Step 3: As soon as exhaust port closes, the compression
starts. Then the inlet port opens at 50 before TDC. i.e.
The crank angle between ‘Inlet port opens’ and ‘Inlet port
closes’ is 100.
 IC Engines 1.31

3 3

2
2

4
Pressure

P ressure
4
1
1

Volum e Volum e
(a) Theoritical cycle (b) A ctual cy cle

T.D.C

S te p 4
S te p 3
I.P.O pens I.P.Closes
5 0o 50
o
E xpa

1 00 o
C om p ressio n

n s io n

S te p 5
E.P.O pens

T.P.O pens
1 40 o
S te p 2 S te p 6
o
E.P.Closes 1 20 70o
T.P.Closes 50
o

S te p 1 80o
o
60
t
aus
Exh

B.D.C
(c.) P ort timing diagram o f a tw o stro ke
petrol en gin e
Fig. 1.12

Step 4: At the end of compression stroke, the spark plug

produces spark. Due to combustion of air-fuel mixture, a
large force is acted upon the piston moving downward.
During downward movement of the piston, the inlet port is
1.32 Thermal Engineering - I

covered by the piston. i.e. The inlet port is closed at 50

after TDC.
Step 5: Further downward movement of the piston, during
expansion stroke, uncovers the exhaust port. i.e. Exhaust
port is uncovered at 80 before BDC. (or) The angle between
‘Exhaust port opens’ and ‘Exhaust port closes’ is 140. The
exhaust stroke starts when exhaust port is uncovered.

Step 6: A little time after ‘Exhaust port opens’, the

‘transfer port opens’. As we have already seen, the angle
between ‘Transfer port opens’ and ‘Transfer port closes’ is
120. i.e. The transfer port opens at 70 before BDC.

1.9.4 Port timing Diagram for Two Stroke Cycle

Diesel Engine
In actual cycle, the corners are rounded off, since inlet
port and exhaust port are covered and uncovered not in all
of a sudden. Covering and uncovering of ports takes
sometime.

Port Timing Diagram

The actual valve timing diagram for two stroke diesel
engine is similar to that of two stroke petrol engine. The
difference between them are given below.

1. In diesel engine, the air is sucked inside the cylinder

instead of air-fuel mixture in case of petrol engine.
2. In diesel engine, the fuel injector injects fuel instead
of spark plug produces spark in case of petrol
engine.
Slight variations of crank angles for EPO, TPO, etc.
which are discussed below:
 IC Engines 1.33

2 3
TDC

F ue l s u pp ly S te p 6

7
p
o
20 o

S te
15

P res s ure
4
F.I.V.O F.I.V.C
S te p 5 1

8
ep
O Volum e

St
IP
(b) A ctua l cy cle

Ex
0 )o

.C

pa
I .P
2

n si
n (1

50 50 o

o n (1
C o m p re s s io

2 0o )
E .P.C E .P.O

T.P.C T.P.O S te p 1
S te p 4
E xh aus t
S te p 3 45 o o
45
60 o
o
60 S te p 2

(c .) BDC

Fig . 1 .13 P ort tim in g diagra m for tw o s tro ke die sel engine

Step 1: Exhaust port opens (EPO) at 60 before BDC

position.

Step 2: Transfer port opens (TPO) at 45 before BDC

position.

Step 3: Transfer port closes (TPC) at 45 after BDC

position.
Step 4: Exhaust port closes (EPC) at 60 after BDC
position.
1.34 Thermal Engineering - I

Step 5: Inlet port opens at 50 before TDC position.

Step 6: Fuel injection valve opens (FIVO) at 15 before

TDC position.

Step 7: Fuel injection valve closes (FIVC) at 20 after TDC

position.

Step 8: Inlet port closes (IPC) at 50 after TDC. By seeing

port timing diagram, the following points are noted.

The compression stroke occurs for angle of 120 of

crank rotation.

The fuel supply occurs for angle of 35 of crank

rotation.

The suction stroke occurs for 100 of crank rotation.

The expansion stroke occurs for 120 of crank

rotation.

The exhaust stroke occurs for angle of 120 of crank

rotation.

1.10 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM

1.10.1 Fuel injection Systems for S.I. Engines

To run S.I. engine, the petrol from the fuel tank must
reach cylinder. The petrol vaporize easily at atmospheric
condition, therefore the engine suction is sufficient to vaporize
petrol. In petrol engine, the petrol from the fuel tank reaches
through the fuel pump, filter and carburetor to the cylinder.
Thus, the fuel feed system of a petrol engine consists of the
following components.
 IC Engines 1.35

1. Fuel tank, 2. Fuel pump, 3. Fuel filter

4. Carburetor, 5. Intake manifold, 6. Fuel tubes for
necessary connections, 7. Gauge to indicate to the driver
the fuel level in the fuel tank.

The fuel system is used for the following reasons.

 To store fuel in the fuel tank

 To supply fuel to the required amount and proper
condition
 To indicate to the driver the fuel level in the fuel
tank.

1.10.2 Different types of Fuel Systems

The fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the engine
cylinder by the following systems:

(a) Gravity system,

(b) Pressure system,

(c) Vacuum system,

(d) Pump system,

(e) Fuel injection system

In gravity system, the fuel tank is placed above the

carburetor. The fuel flows from the tank to the carburetor
due to the gravitational force. Thus the system does not
have fuel pump. This system is cheap and simple one. The
fuel tank is directly connected to the carburetor. Motor
cycles and scooters use this system.

In pressure system, the pressure is created inside

the tank by means of a pump, and the fuel flows to the
1.36 Thermal Engineering - I

carburetor. In this system the tank can be placed above or

below the carburetor.
In a vacuum system, the engine suction is used for
sucking the petrol from the main tank to the auxiliary fuel
tank and then it flows by gravity to the carburetor.
In pump system, a fuel feed pump is used to feed the
petrol from the fuel tank to the carburetor. In this system
the fuel tank can be placed at any suitable position in the
vehicle.
In fuel injection system, a fuel injection pump is
used in place of carburetor. The fuel is atomized by means
of a nozzle and then delivered into an air stream.
1.10.3 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM IN SI ENGINES
A schematic diagram of fuel supply system is shown
in Fig. Here, the storage tank is located below the
carburetor the fuel pump sucks the petrol from tank and
pumps it to carburetor through fuel filter. Filter is used to
prevent the dust and other materials going along with
petrol.
A Schematic diagram of fuel injection system

Storage Fu el Fu el
filter Carburetor Engin e
Tank Pum p

Fig 1.14 A Schem atic diagram of fuel supply system .

1.10.4 Fuel Pump (for S.I. Engine)

This type of pump is used in petrol engine when the
cam shaft rotates, it pushes the lever in upward direction.
 IC Engines 1.37

O utlet valve
S traine r

D ia p hra gm

P um p C ha mb er

S pring

H in g ed po int

G la ss b ow l

C am
Fig.1.15 Fuel pu mp for S I Engin e

This upward movement pulls the diaphragm downward. It

creates a vacuum in the pump chamber and the petrol
comes to pump chamber from the glass bowl. Strainer is
used to prevent the impurities of the fuel coming along
with fuel. On the return stroke, the spring pushes the
diaphragm in the upward direction and the petrol is forced
to carburetor.

1.11 Carburetor
Carburetor is a device which is used for atomizing
and vapourizing the fuel (petrol) and mixing it with the air
in varying proportions, to suit the changing operating
conditions of the engine.

Atomization is the breaking up the liquid fuel (petrol)

into very small particles so that it is properly mixed with
the air. But vaporization is the change of state of the fuel
from liquid to vapour. Carburetor performs both the process
i.e., atomization of the fuel and vaporization of the fuel.
1.38 Thermal Engineering - I

The working of all modern carburetors are based upon

Bernoulli’s theorem.

1.11.1 SIMPLE CARBURETOR

A simple carburetor consists of following 1. float and
float chamber, 2. venturi and throttle valves and 3. choke
valve.

1. Float and Float chamber

The petrol is supplied to the float chamber from the
fuel tank through the filter and fuel pump. When the petrol
in float chamber reaches a particular level, the needle valve
blocks the inlet passage and thus cuts off the petrol supply.
On the fall of the petrol level in the float chamber, the
float descends down and inlet passage opens. The petrol is
supplied to the chamber again. Thus a constant fuel (petrol)

To E n g ine

T h rottle
F u e l Inle t Va lv e
M ixtu re
N e e d le
Ve n t Fuel
va lv e
Je t
F lo at Ve n tu ri
2 x 2

F lo at
ch a m b er

C h o ke
Va lv e

Fig.1.16 S im ple C arburetor

A ir
 IC Engines 1.39

level is maintained in the float chamber. The float chamber

supplies the petrol to the main discharge jet placed in
venturi tube. The level of fuel in the float chamber is kept
slightly below the top of the jet to prevent the leakage when
not operating.
2. Venturi and Throttle valve
The carburetor consists of a narrower passage at its
centre, called venturi. One end of the carburetor is
connected with the intake manifold of the engine. During
the suction stroke, vacuum is created inside the cylinder.
Due to vacuum, the air is sucked to the carburetor. The
velocity of the air increases as it passes through the venturi
where the area of cross section is minimum. Due to
increased velocity of air at the venturi, the pressure at the
venturi decreases. Therefore a low pressure zone is created
in the venturi. So the jet (nozzle) located at the venturi is
in the zone of low pressure. The fuel comes out from jet
(nozzle) in the form of fine spray. This fuel spray is mixed
with air and the mixture is supplied to the intake manifold
of the engine. The throttle valve is placed between the jet
(nozzle) and the intake manifold of the engine. The quantity
of the mixture is controlled by means of throttle valve.
3. Choke Valve
While starting in cold weather the engine needs extra
rich mixture. So a choke valve is introduced in the air
passage before the venturi. When the choke valve is closed
it creates high vacuum near the fuel jet and small quantity
of air is allowed, to get rich mixture. The fuel flow increases
as the vacuum near the jet increases.
1.40 Thermal Engineering - I

1.12 AIR FUEL RATIO

Oxygen is very much necessary to burn the fuel. This
oxygen is taken from atmospheric air. The proper
proportion of air and fuel mixture should be obtained for
complete combustion of fuel.

For complete combustion, the Air-Fuel ratio should be

approximately 15:1 by weight. This is known as
chemically correct or stoichiometric air fuel ratio.

The normal range of Air fuel ratio is in between 20:1

to 8:1 approximately.

Air fuel ratio during starting is approximately 10:1 -

i.e., very rich mixture.

Air fuel ratio during idling speed (low speed) is

approximately 12:1 - i.e., rich mixture.

Air fuel ratio during normal running condition, is

approximately 15:1 neither rich nor lean mixture.

Air fuel ratio for economic running (medium load), is

approximately 17:1 - economic mixture.

Air fuel ratio during overtaking, is approximately 12:1

- rich mixture.

1.13 VARIOUS COMPENSATION IN CARBURETORS

A simple carburetor can not supply different air-fuel
ratio according to the speeds and loads of the engine.

To supply correct airfuel ratio to meet the existing

condition is known as the compensation in carburetor. The
various compensations in carburetor are given below.

1. Auxiliary (or) extra air valve compensation

 IC Engines 1.41

2. Restricted air bleed compensation

3. Compensating jet compensation
4. Economiser needle in metering jet.
1. Auxiliary (or) Extra air valve compensation

A ir

E xtra a ir
va lve

A ir

P a rt o f floa t
ch a m b er
Th ro ttle

Fig .1.17
To in d uctio n m an ifo ld
A uxilia ry (o r) Extra air va lve co m pensa tio n

An extra air valve is provided to the carburetor to

supply extra air to mixture, when the throttle valve is
opened more and more. So the air-fuel ratio (mixture
strength) is maintained constant.

2. Restricted air-bleed compensation

Here, a jet tube having openings at its periphery is
provided in the carburetor. A restricted air bleed opening
is connecting the main air passage to the outer enclosure
of the jet tube.

During starting and slow speed, more quantity of fuel

flows into venturi to give rich mixture.

During high speed, the throttle valve opens more and

the vacuum in the venturi become more. So more fuel is
1.42 Thermal Engineering - I

A ir
R e stricted a ir
ble ed o pe nin g

O u te r
en clo ser

Je t Tu be P art o f flo at
ch am be r
T hrottle

To ind uction m anifold

R estricted air-blee d co m pe nsatio n F ig .1.18

drawn and sprayed by nozzle. But at this stage, the air

bubbles start bleeding through the jet-tube and make the
mixture lean.
3. Compensating Jet Compensation
In this system, main jet and compensating jet are
provided in the carburetor. The main jet is connected to
float chamber directly. The compensating jet is connected
to float chamber through tube C whose top end is open to
atmosphere. For normal throttle valve openings, both the
jets supply fuel to venturi. But when the throttle opens
more and more, the fuel supply from main-jet increases and
the fuel supply from compensating jet decreases due to
falling level of fuel in tube C. Because of atmospheric
pressure acting in this tube C, the richness of mixture
decreases.
 IC Engines 1.43

To in du ction m an ifo ld

T hrottle

Op en to
atmo sp here
P art of floa t
cha m b er
c

A
M ain jet
B
Com pensating jet
A ir
Fig.1.19
Com pensating jet Com pensation

4. Economiser needle in metering jet

The flow of fuel is controlled by changing the area of
the metering nozzle supplying fuel from float chamber to
the main jet. The area is changed by means of a needle
operated by linkage with accelerator pedal.

1.14 TYPES OF CARBURETORS

There are three important types of carburetor
1. Zenith carburetor
2. Solex Carburetor
3. Amal Carburetor

1.14.1 Simple Calculations involved in Carburetors

We assume that air is incompressible fluid, and the
flow is expressed by using Bernoullis energy equation. Here
‘Suffix a’ stands for air and ‘Suffix f’ stands for fuel.
1.44 Thermal Engineering - I


Mass of air flowing in kg/sec  m a

 a A a V a

where a  density of air constant in kg/m 3

V a  Ve locity of air in m/sec

A a  Cross sectional area of throat in m 2

V 2  Ve locity of air at throat

1



2   P2   
V a  Ca V 2  C a RT 1  1    
1 
P
 1 


ma
Air fuel ratio  
mf

where m f  Mass of fuel flow in kg /sec


ma Aa Ca a  p a
Air fuel ratio   
mf A f C f 
   pa  x  
f f


m a in kg/sec  A a C a 
 2 a pa


Air/fuel  m f  Aa Ca 

2  a  pa


m f  Af C f 
 2 f pa  x  9.81  
 f



2x  9.81 f
V a critical  C a
a
 IC Engines 1.45

where
C a  Coefficient of discharge for airflowin g venturi throat

C f  Coefficient of discharge for fuel jet

pa  Pressure of air in N/m2

A f  Cross sectional area fuel jet

x  height of jet above the float chamber level .

It is called as lip of jet in m.

pa  Drop in pressure causing air flow

f  Density of fuel

PROBLEMS IN CARBURETOR

Problem 1.1: A petrol engine has a fuel consumption of 20 lits

per hour. The air fuel ratio supplied through the carburetor is 15.
The choke has a diameter of 20 mm. Determine the diameter of
fuel jet of carburetor if the top of the jet is 5 mm above the fuel
level in the float chamber. The barometer reads 750 mm of Hg
and the temperature is 32C. Neglect the compressibility of air.
Assume Ca  0.85 and Cf  0.7; f  700 kg/m3

Solution:
A/F  15; Fuel consumption = 20 lit /hr or volume flow
20
of fuel in m 3/sec , Vf   5.5556  10  6 m 3/sec
1000  3600

f  700 kg/m 3; C a  0.85 ; C f  0.7

Choke dia d a  0.02 m ; dia of jet df  ?; x  0.005 m

1.46 Thermal Engineering - I

750
Atmospheric pressure   1.01325  0.99992 bar
760

 0.99992  10 5 N/m 2

Atmo spheric Temperature  32  273  305 K

Density of air: a

P Va  Ra T

Ra T P
Va  and a 
P Ra T

0.99992  10 5
a   1.1423 kg/m 3
287  305

Drop in pressure causing air flow:  pa


m a  Aa Ca 

2 a  
pa and
 
m a  A/F  mf

  m 3 kg
Mass flow m f  Vf  f in 
sec m 3

 5.5556  10  6  700

m f  3.88889  10  3 kg/sec
 
M ass flow ma of air  A/F  mf

 15  3.88889  10  3

 0.058333 kg/sec


Also m a  Aa Ca 

2  a  pa
 IC Engines 1.47

 
0.058333    0.02 2   0.85 
 2  1.1423   pa
4 


 a  144.524
p

pa  20,887.2

To find Af Area of a jet



m f  Af Cf  2 f pa  x f

3.88889  10  3  A f  0.7 
 
2  700 20887.2  0.005  700

 2
A f  1.0282  10  6 m 2  d
4 f

d f  1.1442  10  3 m

Diameter of fuel jet d f  1.1442 mm

Problem 1.2: A single jet simple carburetor is to supply 6

kg/min of air and 0.45 kg/min of petrol whose density is 740
kg/m3. The air is initially at 1.027 bar and 27C. Calculate
the throat diameter of the venturi throat if the speed of air is
92 m/sec, assuming velocity coefficient of 0.8. Assume adiabatic
expansion and  for air is 1.4. If the pressure drop across the
fuel metering orifice is 0.75 of that at the throat, calculate
orifice diameter assuming Cf  0.6, Ca  0.8

Solution:
T 1  27  273  310 K
1.48 Thermal Engineering - I

To find Dia of throat

Va  Ca

 2
1



 P 2   1/ 
R T1  1  
P
 1
 


0.4



2  1.4   P2  1.4 
92  0.8  287  310  1    
0.4 P
  1 

0.4
 P 2  1.4
 P   0.97876
 1
P2
 0.927629
P1

P2  1.027  0.927629  0.952675 bar

1
T2  P2  
 
T1 P
 1
 0.4 
 
T2  310 0.927629  1.4 

 303.42 K

ma   a A a V a

P2 0.95 2675  10 5
a    1.094 kg/m 3
R T2 287  303.42

a  1.094 kg/m 3

m a  a Aa Va
 IC Engines 1.49

6
kg/sec  1.094  A a  92
60

A a  9.93549  10  4m 2

 2
d  9.93549  10  4
4 a

da  0.035567 m

Diameter of throat  3.5567 c m

To find Diameter of jet ‘d f’

Pressure drop at venturi P 1  P 2

 1.027  0.9527

 0.0743 bar

Pressure drop at jet  0.75  0.0743

 0.055725 bar

m f  Af C f 

2 f pressure drop a t jet

0.45
60
kg/sec  Af  0.6 
2  740  0.055725  10 5

 2
A f  4.35265  10  6  d
4 f

d f  2.3541  10  3 m

 2.354 mm

Problem 1.3: A carburetor consumes 6 Kg of fuel/hr. The

density of fuel is 700 kg/m3. The level of fuel in the float
chamber is 3 mm below the top of jet. Ambient conditions are
1.01325 bar and Temperature 17C. The jet diameter is 1.2mm
1.50 Thermal Engineering - I

and its discharge coefficient is 0.6. The coefficient of discharge

for air is 0.85. A/F ratio is 15. Determine the critical air
velocity and throat diameter. Express the pressure depression
in mm of water. Neglect compressibility of air.

Solution:
Given

 6
mf   1.6667  10  3 kg/sec
3600

a  700 k g/m 3 ; x  0.003 m

P 1  1.01325 bar ; T 1  17  273  290 K

d f  2mm  0.002 m; C f  0.6 ; Ca  0.85 ; A/F  15

Density of air a
P1 1.01325  10 5
a    1.21741 kg/m 3
R T1 287  290

a  1.21741 kg /m3

(Compressibility of air is neglected)

To find critical velocity



2x  9.81 f
Critical Velocity V a  C a
a



2  0.0003  9.81  700
 0.85
1.21741

V a  4.945 m/sec
 IC Engines 1.51

[critical velocity is the minimum velocity of air at the throat

of venturi at which the fuel begins to flow.]

1mm of H 2O  9.81 N/m 2

So 3 mm height  0.003  9.81

To find pressure drop


m f  Af Cf 

2 f pa  x  9.81 
f

 
1.6667  10  3    0.00132   0.6 
4 

 
2  700 pa  0.003  9.81  700

pa  20.601   4309.03

pa  4329.03 N/m 2

1mm of H 2O  9.81 N/m 2

4329.03
pa 4329.03 N/m 2   441.3 mm o f water
9.81

To find throat dia ‘d a’

 
m a  A /F  m f

 15  1.6667  10 3  25  10  3kg/sec


m a  A a C a 2 a pa

25  10  3  A a  0.85  
2  1.21741  4329.03

 2
A a  0.28647  10  3  d
4 a

d a  0.0191 m
1.52 Thermal Engineering - I

d a  19.1 mm

Problem 1.4: A four cylinder - 4 stroke engine has bore 10

cm and stroke length 12 cm. It is running at 2000 rpm. Its
carburetor throat dia is 8cm. Determine the suction pressure
at the throat. Assume volumetric efficiency = 70%
3
a  1.3 kg/m ; Ca  0.8; Initial pressure  P1  1.027 bar

Solution:

Stroke volume V s   D2  L  4
4


  0.1 2  0.12  4  3.7699  10  3 m 3
4

Actual volume  0.7  V s  2.6389  10  3 m 3

N
Actua l volume in m 3/sec  2.6389  10  3  for 4 stroke
2  60
engine

2000
 2.6389  10  3 
2  60

V a  0.043982 m 3/sec
 
M ass of air flow m a  V a  a

 0.043982  1.2

m a  0.0528 kg /sec


Also m a  A a C a 
 2  a  pa


0.0528 
4
 0.082  

2  1.2  pa
 IC Engines 1.53

pa  71.835 N /m 2

 71.835  10  5 bar

Suction pressure a t throat  P 1  P 2  1.027  71.835  10  5

 1.02628 bar

1.15 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I ENGINES

The fuel supply system of a diesel engine (CI Engine)
consists of 1. fuel tank, 2. fuel filter, 3. injection pump,
4. injector, 5. fuel lines for necessary connections, and 6.
fuel gauge.

In petrol engines, carburetor and spark plug are used.

In Diesel engine, fuel injector is used. Remaining elements
are same for both types of engines.

The fuel from the fuel tank flows to pump. It then

passes out to the inlet side of the main fuel filter. Then
filtered fuel proceeds to the inlet side of the fuel injection
pump. From the injection pump it flows under pressure in
the feed pipes leading to the fuel injectors.

1.15.1 Fuel Pump (C.I. Engine)

The plunger is driven by cam and tappet mechanism.
The plunger is reciprocating inside a barrel. The plunger
has a vertical groove at its top side and helical groove at
its bottom side.

Once the diesel in the barrel gets enough pressure, it

lifts off the delivery valve from its seat. When diesel
pressure is down, the spring pushes the delivery valve
down on its seat.
1.54 Thermal Engineering - I

The top passage is

Pa ssa ge (P )
connected to fuel
injector. Diesel is Sp rin g (S)
supplied to barrel
through supply port.
When the plunger
D e live ry valve (V )
is at its bottom, the
diesel enters through
Ba rre l (B )
supply port. When the Sp ill P ort (SP )
Su pp ly p ort
plunger moves up, both Plun ge r (L )
R o ck(R .)
supply port and spill
port are closed and the
diesel gets compressed.
Now the pressure of
diesel increases.
The high pressure
diesel lifts off the Fig 1.20
delivery valve, flows to Fu el p um p (fo r C .I. Engine )
fuel injector through
passage.
When the plunger moves up further, the spill port is
uncovered. i.e., the spill port is connected to the diesel in the
top of plunger through vertical groove and helical groove at
its side. So the pressure of the diesel suddenly comes down.
The delivery valve comes to its seat and stops the diesel flow
to injector. Now the diesel flows through spill port.
The plunger is rotated by the action of Rack and
Pinion arrangement which is activated by governor. By
rotating the plunger, the angular position of helical groove
to supply port is changed. It changes the length of stroke.
So the quantity of diesel supplied to engine is also changed
 IC Engines 1.55

accordingly. So the rack and pinion arrangement is used to

control the quantity of diesel supplied to engine.
Requirements of Fuel Injection System
(a) The fuel injection should occur at the correct
moment, rate and quantity as required by the
engine at different load conditions.
(b) The fuel should be injected in a finely atomized
condition.
(c) The fuel should be distributed uniformly inside the
combustion chamber.
(d) The beginning and end of injection should take place
sharply.

1.16 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

There are two methods of fuel injection in
compression ignition engines. 1. air injection, 2. airless or
solid or mechanical injection.
1. Air Injection System
This system was developed by Dr.Rudolph Diesel. In
this method, air is first compressed to a very high pressure.
A blast of this air is then injected carrying the fuel along
with it into the cylinder. The high pressure air requires a
multistage compressor. The compressor consumes more
power developed by the engine, thus decreasing the net
output of the engine. This method of fuel injection is costly
and complicated. Therefore it is not used in nowadays.
2. Airless or Solid Injection
In this system the fuel is supplied at a very high
pressure about (150 bar) from the fuel pump to the fuel
injector and from there it is injected to the combustion
chamber. It burns due to the heat of compressed air. This
1.56 Thermal Engineering - I

method requires a fuel pump. This method is used in all

types of diesel engines.

1.16.1 Fuel Injector

The fuel injector is used

(a) To atomize the fuel to the required extent.

(b) To distribute the fuel such that there is complete
mixing of fuel and air.
(c) To start and stop fuel injection instantaneously.

S pring loaded
fuel injector
Lo ck n u t
A d ju s tin g S crew

Le ak-off
co nne ctio n S p ring

F u el inlet

S p in d le

F u el d uct
C a p n ut

S tea m
N o zzle
bo dy
Va lve

Fig.1 .21 Fuel Injecter or A to m iser

 IC Engines 1.57

It consists of a needle valve fitted on its seat in the

nozzle body by a spindle. The spring controls the pressure
on the spindle by which the needle valve opens. The nozzle
is attached to the body by means of a capnut. The fuel
enters the nozzle through holes in the injector body. When
the needle valve is raised from its seat by the pressure of
the fuel, the injection of the fuel into the combustion
chamber takes place. When the injection pressure falls
below the spring pressure, the valve closes.

1.17 IGNITION SYSTEMS

In case of petrol engines during suction operation,
charge of air and petrol fuel will be taken in. During
compression, this charge is compressed by the upward
moving piston. And just before the end of compression, the
charge of air and petrol fuel will be ignited by means of
the spark produced by means of spark plug. And the
ignition system does the function of producing the spark in
case of spark ignition engines.

1.17.1 SPARK PLUG Term ina l

Spark plug is used in SI C en tral

e le ctrod e
engines (Petrol engines) to
produce electric spark to ignite P orce la in
in su la to r
the compressed air fuel mixture
inside the engine cylinder.
M e ta l
The spark plug consists of S crew
three main parts:

(a) A central electrode. S pa rk g a p or

G ro u nd e le ctro de A ir g a p
(b) A metal screw with a
Fig 1.22 Spark plug
ground electrode.
1.58 Thermal Engineering - I

(c) An porcelain insulator separating the two electrodes.

The central electrode in the spark plug is covered by
a porcelain insulator. The central electrode extends for a
short length from the bottom of the insulator. The upper
end of the central electrode is connected to the cable from
the ignition coil. A metal screw surrounds the bottom part
of the insulator. The lower portion of the screw is attached
to a ground electrode and bent towards the central electrode
so that there is a gap between the two electrodes. The air
gap is generally kept between 0.6 mm to 1 mm. The high
voltage current is given to the terminal of the central
electrode. This current jumps in the air gap between the
central electrode and ground electrode. Too large or too
small air gap reduces the efficiency of the entire ignition
system.

A spark plug will fail in its function due to the

following reasons:

(a) The plug may fail due to engine oil entering the
combustion chamber.
(b) Plug fouled by too rich mixture.
(c) Plug gap is too large (or) too small.
(d) Plug gap filled with carbon deposits.
(e) Burned electrode.
(f) Cracked or broken insulator sealing.
Fig. 1.23 shows a typical spark plug used for petrol
engines. It mainly consists of a central electrode and metal
tongue. Central electrode is covered by means of porcelain
insulating material. Through the metal screw, the spark
plug is fitted in the cylinder head. When the high tension
voltage of the order of 30000 volts is applied across the
 IC Engines 1.59

C o nta ct

P o rcela in insulator
C e ntral elec tro de

G as tig ht se al

S e alin g w as he r
M etal scre w

M etal to ng ue

S p ark g ap
Fig. 1.23 Spark plu g

electrodes, current jumps from one electrode to another

producing a spark.
Whereas in case of diesel (Compression Ignition-CI)
engines, only air is taken in during suction operation and
is compressed during compression operation and just before
the end of compression, when diesel fuel is injected, it gets
ignited due to heat of compressed air. Once the charge is
ignited, combustion starts and products of combustion
expand, i.e. they force the piston to move downwards i.e.
they produce power and after producing the power, the
gases are exhausted during exhaust operation.

Basically Conventional Ignition systems are of 2 types

(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System, and

(b) Magneto Ignition System.

Both these conventional ignition systems work on

mutual electromagnetic induction principle. Battery ignition
1.60 Thermal Engineering - I

system was generally used in 4-wheelers, but now-a-days

it is more commonly used in 2-wheelers also (i.e. Button
start, 2-wheelers like Pulsar, Kinetic Honda, Honda-Activa,
Scooty, Fiero, etc.). In this case 6 V or 12 V batteries will
supply necessary current in the primary winding.
Magneto ignition system is mainly used in 2-wheelers,
kick start engines. (Example, Bajaj Scooters, Boxer, Victor,
Splendor, Passion, etc.). In this case magneto will produce
and supply current to the primary winding. So in magneto
ignition system, magneto replaces the battery.
(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System
Fig.1.24 shows line diagram of battery ignition
system for a 4-cylinder petrol engine. It mainly consists of
a 6 or 12 volt battery, ammeter, ignition switch,
auto-transformer (step up transformer), contact breaker,
capacitor, distributor rotor, distributor contact points, spark

Prim ary w ind in g Se co n dary

(2 00 -30 0 tu rns o f C o il w in d in g
2 0 g au g e w ire) (2 10 0 turn s
of (2 00 00 -30 0 00 V)
4 0 g au g e D istribu to r con ta cts
Ig nitio n
sw itch w ire)

1
1 2
C o nta ct 2
Am m eter b rea ke r
3 4 3

C a pa citor 4
Sp ark
p lug s
Ba tte ry C o nta ct b rea ker D istribu to r
(6 or 12 V) o pe rating cam

Fig. 1.24: Schem atic diagram of coil/b attery ign itio n system
 IC Engines 1.61

plugs, etc. Note that the Fig.1.24 shows the ignition system
for 4-cylinder petrol engine, here there are 4-spark plugs
and contact breaker cam has 4-corners. (If it is for
6-cylinder engine it will have 6-spark plugs and contact
breaker cam will be a perfect hexagon).
The ignition system is divided into 2-circuits :
(i) Primary Circuit: It consists of 6 or 12 V battery,
ammeter, ignition switch, primary winding having
200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge)
gauge wire, contact breaker and capacitor.
(ii) Secondary Circuit: It consists of secondary
winding. Secondary Ignition Systems winding
consists of about 21000 turns of 40 (SWG) gauge
wire. Bottom end of which is connected to bottom
end of primary coil and top end of secondary
winding is connected to centre of distributor rotor.
Distributor rotors rotate and make contacts with
contact points and are connected to spark plugs
which are fitted in cylinder heads (engine earth).
Working
When the ignition switch is closed and engine is
cranked, the contact breaker closes and a low voltage
current will flow through the primary winding. The contact
beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4
cylinders) in one revolution. When the contact breaker
opens, (breaks the contact), the magnetic field begins to
collapse. Because of this collapsing magnetic field, current
will be induced in the secondary winding. And because of
more turns (21000 turns) of secondary winding, voltage goes
upto 28000-30000 volts.
1.62 Thermal Engineering - I

This high voltage current is brought to centre of the

distributor rotor. Distributor rotor rotates and supplies this
high voltage current to proper spark plug depending upon
the engine firing order. When the high voltage current
jumps the spark plug gap, it produces the spark and the
air-fuel charge is ignited-combustion starts-products of
combustion expand and produce power.

Note:
(a) The function of the capacitor is to reduce arcing at
the contact breaker (CB) points. Also when the CB
opens, the magnetic field in the primary winding
begins to collapse. When the magnetic field is
collapsing, capacitor gets fully charged and then it
starts discharging and helps in building up of
voltage in secondary winding.
(b) Contact breaker cam and distributor rotor are
mounted on the same shaft.
In 2-stroke cycle engines, these are operated at the
same engine speed. And in 4-stroke cycle engines, they are
operated at half the engine speed.

Advantages of Battery Ignition System

(a) It gives better spark during starting speed and idling
speed.
(b) Its initial cost is low. For this reason this system
is used in cars and commercial vehicles.
(c) The maintenance cost is less.
(d) The mechanism of distributor drive is simple.
Disadvantages of Battery Ignition System
(a) The engine cannot be started if the battery is low
(or) discharged.
 IC Engines 1.63

(b) It occupies more space.

(c) It has a complicated wiring.
(d) The spark intensity falls as the engine speed
increases.

(b) Magneto Ignition System

In this case, magneto will produce and supply the
required current to the primary winding. Here, a rotating
magneto with fixed coil or a rotating coil with fixed
magneto is set up for producing and supplying current to
primary, remaining arrangement is same as that of a
battery ignition system.
D istribu to r contact points
D istribu to r ro to r

C o il 3

Sp ark p lu gs

Cam N
Prim ary w ind in g
S
Se con dary w in ding

R o tating m a gn et
C o ntact b rea ker tw o pole sh ow n

Ig nition
sw tich
C a pacitor

Fig. 1.25 :Schematic diagram of Magneto Ig nition system

1.64 Thermal Engineering - I

Both these conventional ignition systems work on

mutual electromagnetic induction principle.

Following are the drawbacks of conventional ignition

systems:

(a) The arcing and pitting of contact breaker points will

lead to regular maintenance problems.
(b) Poor starting: After few thousands of kilometers of
running, the timing becomes inaccurate, which
results in poor starting (Starting trouble).
(c) At very high engine speed, performance is poor
because of inertia effects of the moving parts in the
system.

Advantages of Magneto Ignition System

(a) It occupies less space.
(b) Wiring is simple.
(c) Spark intensity improves as the engine speed
increases.
(d) It is used in motor cycles, scooters, and racing
cars.

Disadvantages of Magneto Ignition System

(a) Starting is difficult.

(b) Cost is more.

(c) It does not give better spark during starting speed

and idling speed.
 IC Engines 1.65

Comparison between Battery and Magneto ignition

system

S.
Battery Ignition Magneto Ignition
No.
1. Battery is must No need of battery
2. A good spark is available During starting the
at low speed also. quality of spark is poor
due to slow speed.
3. Occupies more space Very much compact
4. Battery maintenance is No battery maintenance
required problems.
5. Mostly used in car and bus Used on motorcycles,
for which it is required to Scooters etc.,
crank the engine

1.17.2 Types of Electronic ignition systems:

(a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition system
(b) Transistorized coil Ignition system
(c) Piezo-electric Ignition system
(d) The Texaco Ignition system

(a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition System

It mainly consists of 6-12 V battery, ignition switch,
DC convertor, charging resistance, tank capacitor, Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCR), SCR-triggering device, step up
transformer and spark plugs. A 6-12 volt battery is
connected to DC converter i.e. power circuit through the
ignition switch, which is designed to increase the voltage
to 250-350 volts. This high voltage is used to charge the
tank capacitor (or condenser) to this voltage through the
charging resistance. The charging resistance is also so
designed that it controls the required current in the SCR.
1.66 Thermal Engineering - I

DC
con vertor
(C h arg ing resista nce )
R To
SCR spa rk plug
Ignition sw itch

S econda ry
2 50 V 3 50 V

P rim ary
B attery Tan k
6 -12 V cap acitor C
o r condenser SCR
trigg ering
d evice

S tep -up
Fig.1.26 C apacitance d ischarge ignition system transfo rm er

Depending upon the engine firing order, whenever the

SCR triggering device sends a pulse, then the current
flowing through the primary winding is stopped, and the
magnetic field begins to collapse. This collapsing magnetic
field will induce or step up high voltage current in the
secondary winding, which while jumping through the spark
plug gap produces the spark, and the charge of air fuel
mixture is ignited.
Advantages of capacitance discharge ignition system:
(a) Moving parts are absent-so no maintenance.
(b) Contact breaker points are absent-so no arcing.
(c) Spark plug life increases by 50% and they can be
used for about 60000 km with out any problem.
(d) Better combustion in combustion chamber, about
90-95% of air fuel mixture is burnt compared with
70-75% with conventional ignition system.
(e) More power output.
(f) More fuel efficiency.
 IC Engines 1.67

(b) Transistorized Assisted Contact (TAC) Ignition

System
This system incorporates normal mechanical breakers,
which drives a transistor to control the current in the
primary circuit. Since a very small breaker current is used,
erosion of the contacts is eliminated so that good coil output
is maintained. Also it provides accurate spark timing for a
much longer period. When a low inductive coil and ballast
resistor are used with this system, excessive contact arcing
produced by the high primary current is also eliminated.
The basic principle of a breaker-triggered, inductive,
semiconductor ignition system is illustrated in Fig.1.27.
Here, a transistor works as a contact breaker, by acting as
power switch to make and break the primary circuit. The
transistor also performs as a relay, which is operated by
the current supplied by a cam-operated control switch and
thereby called as breaker-trigger.
A small control current passes through the
base-emitter of the transistor when the contact breaker is

Ig nitio n
sw tich

P S

C o nta ct
b reake r

Tra ns is tor
R1
R2

Fig. 1.27 T.A.C Ign itio n S ystem .

1.68 Thermal Engineering - I

in closed condition. This switches-on the collector-emitter

circuit of the transistor and allows full current to flow
through the primary circuit to energize the coil. The flow
of current, at this stage, in the control circuit and transistor
base is governed by the total and relative values of the
resistors R1 and R 2. These resistance values are chosen to
provide a control current of about 0.3A, which is sufficient
to provide a self-cleaning action of the contact surfaces
without overloading the breaker. When the spark is
required, the cam opens the contact to interrupt the base
circuit, which causes the transistor to switch-off. With
sudden opening of the primary circuit, a high voltage is
induced into the secondary, which produces a spark at the
spark plug. This sequence is repeated to provide the
required number of sparks per each revolution of the cam.
The T.A.C. arrangement provides a quicker break of the
circuit compared with a non- transistorised system, and, as
a result, a more rapid collapse of the magnetic flux takes
place. Consequently a high HT secondary voltage is
obtained. The components of this ignition system are
similar to those used with a conventional system except for
the extra control module containing the power transistor.
Advantages
(a) Breaker point contact surfaces last the life of the
engine.
(b) Improved cold starting due to faster rise time offered
by transistor switching.
(c) Improved consistency and repeatability of secondary
voltage energy and waveform without degradation
over time.
 IC Engines 1.69

(d) Ability to fire partially fouled plugs due to

aforementioned rise time improvement.

Disadvantages
(a) As in the conventional system, mechanical breaker
points are necessary for timing the spark.
(b) The cost of the ignition system is increased.
(c) The voltage rise-time at the spark plug is about the
same as before.

1.18 LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Lubrication is necessary for proper maintenance of a
motor vehicle. Use of lubricating oil between the moving
parts is known as lubrication. (The moving parts are
subjected to wear and tear due to continuous rubbing action
of one part on another.)

The main parts to be lubricated in case of IC engines

are: (a) cylinder walls, (b) crankshaft main bearing, (c) big
end bearing of connecting rod, (d) small end bearing of
connecting rod, (e) cam faces where they engage with the
tappets, (f) push rod guides, (g) rocker arm pin, (h) valve
guides, (i) timing gears, and (j) cam shaft bearings.

1.18.1 Purpose of Lubrication

(a) To reduce friction between the mating parts.
(b) To reduce wear and tear of the moving parts.
(c) To keep the engine parts clean.
(d) To absorb shock between bearing and other engine
parts.
(e) To reduce noise and to increase engine life.
(f) To act as a cooling medium for removing heat.
1.70 Thermal Engineering - I

(g) To form a good seal between piston rings and cylinder

walls.
(h) To absorb and carry away harmful substances
resulting from incomplete combustion.
(i) To prevent deposition of carbon, soot and lacquer.
(j) To prevent metallic components from corrosive
attack due to acid formation during combustion
process.
1.18.2 Systems of Lubrication
The different systems for lubricating the engine are:
(a) petroil system, (b) splash system, (c) pressure system,
(d) semi-pressure system, (e) dry pump system.

(a) Petroil System

This system of lubrication is generally used in two
stroke petrol engines like scooters and motor cycles. In this
system oil pump is not required for the purpose of
lubrication. The lubricating oil is mixed into the petrol itself
in a specific ratio. When the fuel goes into the crank
chamber during the engine operation, the oil particles go
deep into the bearing surfaces and lubricates them. The
piston rings, cylinder walls, piston pin etc are lubricated in
the same way.

If the engine remains unused for a long period, the

lubricating oil separates off from petrol and cloggs the
passage of the carburettor, resulting in the starting trouble
of the engine. This is the main disadvantage of this system.

(b) Splash System

In this method, the lubricating oil is stored in an oil
sump. A dipper or scoop is made in the lowest part of the
connecting rod. When the engine runs, the dipper dips in
 IC Engines 1.71

G udge on pin O il
gaug e
C onne cting rod

O il
Journa l hole

Scoop

Pressu re
releas e

~
oil sum p valve
Pum p

Fig.1.28 Sp lash Lub rication

the oil once in every revolution of the crankshaft and the

oil is splashed on the cylinder walls. In this way the engine
wall, piston pin, piston rings, crankshaft bearings and big
end bearings are lubricated. This system works in
connection with pressure system.
(c) Pressure System (Forced Lubrication)
In this system the lubricating oil is stored in a
separate tank or sump and the pump is immersed in the
lubricating oil. The oil pump pumps the oil through the
strainer and delivers it through a filter to the main oil
gallery at a pressure of 200400 kN/m2. The oil from the
main gallery goes to the main bearings and then through
a hole to the crank pin. From the crank pin it goes to the
piston pin through a hole in the connecting rod web, where
it lubricates the piston pin bearings and piston rings. For
lubricating the cam shaft and timing gears the oil is led
through a separate oil line from the oil gallery. The valve
1.72 Thermal Engineering - I

Lo w pressu re o il
to cam sha ft

O il tan k
S caven ge
pu m p s

O il c ooler

P re ssure
pu m p Filter
Lo w pressu re Fig.1.29
H igh p re ssure
relief valv e Fo rce d lu brication
relief valve

tappets are lubricated by connecting the main oil gallery

to the tappet guide surfaces through drilled holes. An oil
pressure gauge is inserted in the oil circuit to indicate the
pressure of oil in the system.
(d) Semipressure System
This system is the combination of splash system and
pressure system. All four stroke engines are lubricated by
this system.
(e) Dry Sump System
In this system the lubricating oil is kept in a separate
tank from where it is fed to the engine. The oil which falls
into the oil sump after lubrication, is sent back to the oil
tank by a separate delivery pump. This system is used
where the vehicle has to change its position continuously
like in aircrafts. The advantage of this system is that there
 IC Engines 1.73

is no chance of breakdown of the oil supply during up and

down movement of the vehicle.

1.19 COOLING SYSTEM

1.19.1 Purpose of Cooling
The maximum temperature attained inside the engine
cylinder is in the range of 2000 C to 2500 C. The large
amount of heat so produced is absorbed by the cylinder
walls, piston, cylinder head and engine valves. So the
temperature of these parts increase. This high temperature
will break the lubricating oil film between the moving
parts. So, this high temperature must be reduced by cooling
system so that the engine can work efficiently. The
overheating of these parts over 250C to 300C may cause
the following defects:

1. At high temperature the lubricating oil decomposes

and carbon deposits is formed in the cylinder.
2. Piston may breakdown.
3. High temperature reduces the strength of the piston
and piston ring.
4. The uneven expansion of cylinder and piston may
seize the piston.
5. High temperature around the valve may cause the
burning of valves and valve seats.
6. There is a tendency for detonation to increase.
7. There is a chance of pre-ignition.
To avoid all the above effects it is necessary to cool
the engine.

The cooling system is designed to remove about 30 to

35% of the total heat produced in the engine cylinder.
1.74 Thermal Engineering - I

1.19.2 Methods of Cooling IC Engine

There are two methods of cooling IC engines:

1. Air cooling, and

2. Water cooling.
1. Air Cooling
The heat from the cylinder walls is dissipated directly
to the air. For this purpose fins and flanges are provided
on the outer surfaces of the cylinder and cylinder head. An
air stream is flowing continuously over the heated surface
of the engine from where heat is to be removed. The
amount of heat dissipated depends upon the following
factors:

(a) Surface area of metal in contact with air.

(b) Rate of air flow.
(c) Temperature difference between the heated surface
and the air.
(d) Conductivity of the metal and convective heat
transfer coefficient between air and metal.
Advantages of Air Cooled Engines
(a) Light weight due to the absence of radiator, cooling
jacket and coolant.
(b) Simple design and less costly.
(c) There is no chance of leakage of coolant.
(d) Anti-freeze not required.
(e) Engine warms up faster than that of water cooled
engines.
(f) Can be operated in cold climate where water may
freeze.
(g) It does not depend on any coolant.
 IC Engines 1.75

Disadvantages of Air Cooled Engines

(a) Less efficient cooling because the convective
coefficient of heat transfer for air is less than that
of water.
(b) Cooling is not even all around the cylinder.
(c) More noisy operation.
(d) Limited use as in the case of motor cycles and
scooters where the cylinders are exposed to air
stream.
2. Water Cooling
In this method the water is circulated through water
jackets around each of the combustion chambers, cylinders,
valve seats and valve stems. The circulating water takes
heat of the combustion. When it passes through the
radiator it is cooled by air drawn through the radiator by
a fan and by air flow developed by the forward motion of
the vehicle. After passing through the radiator, the cooled
water is again circulated.

Systems of Water Cooling

There are various systems of water cooling:

1. Thermo-syphon cooling

2. Forced (or) Pump cooling

3. Cooling with thermostatic repulator

4. Pressurized cooling

Now we shall discuss about the first two types in

detail.

Thermosyphon system or natural circulation system:

In this system of cooling, the circulation of water is
1.76 Thermal Engineering - I

obtained due to the difference

of densities of hot and cold
regions of the cooling water.
There is no pump to circulate
the water. The hot water from
the engine jacket rises up in F in

the hose pipe as it is lighter

and goes to the radiator from
the top. Then it is cooled C yc lind er
Fig. 1.30 Air cooling
there and goes down to the
bottom of the radiator. From
there it goes again in the
engine jacket. This system is
quite simple and cheap, but
cooling is rather slow. To
maintain continuity of the
water flow, the water must be
maintained up to a certain Fig. 1.31 Water cooling
minimum head. If the water (Thermosyphon system )

level falls down, the

circulation will discontinue and the cooling system will fail.
Forced circulation system: In this system of water
cooling the circulation of water is obtained by a pump
which is driven by a V-belt from a pulley on the engine
crankshaft. The water is kept continuously in motion. After
passing through the engine jackets in the cylinder block
and heads, the water passes through radiator. In radiator,
the water is cooled by atmospheric air drawn by fan
through radiator. After passing through the radiator, the
water is drained and delivered to the water pump. The
water is again circulated through the engine jackets. This
 IC Engines 1.77

system is more effective. The circulation of water becomes

faster as the engine speed increases. It is not necessary to
maintain the water up to a particular level.

Advantages of Water Cooling System

(a) The specific fuel consumption is low as compared to
air cooled engine.
(b) Uniform cooling is possible.
(c) It is not necessary to place the engine in the front
of the vehicle as in case of air cooled engine.
(d) Compact engine design with minimum frontal area
is possible.

Disadvantages of Water Cooling System

(a) It is dependent on water supply.
(b) The engine may be damaged in case of failure of
cooling system.
(c) The pump takes considerable power.
(d) Initial and maintenance costs are higher.
(e) There is a danger of leakage and freezing of coolant.
(f) The design of the system is complicated and more
costly.

1.20 FUELS AND COMBUSTION

1.20.1 Introduction
Fuel is a substance which is used to liberate heat
while burning. It starts burning continuously when it is
raised to its ignition temperature.

The combustion of fuels is a Chemical combination of

oxygen with hydrocarbons. (Most of the fuels belong to
hydrocarbon family - i.e., containing hydrogen and carbon).
1.78 Thermal Engineering - I

1.20.2 Classification of fuels:

Fuels are classified as (i) Solid fuels (ii) Liquid fuels
(iii) Gaseous fuel

(i) Solid fuels:

The following are the important solid fuels.

Among all solid fuels, coal is mostly used for power

generation.
1. Wood
2. Peat (mixture of water and decayed vegetable
products)

3. Lignite
4. Bituminous coal

5. Anthracite coal.

(ii) Liquid fuels:

Liquid fuels are mainly derived from the crude oil
(natural petroleum). These crude oil can be taken from
various parts of the world mainly in Arabian countries. The
important liquid fuels are
1. Gasoline (or) Petrol 2. Paraffin

3. Diesel 4. Crude oil (Heavy oil)

5. Kerosene. 6. Benzol

7. Shale oil

(iii) Gaseous fuel

Commonly used gaseous fuels are given below
1. Natural gas 2. Liquified petroleum gas

3. Refinery oil gas 4. Coal gas

 IC Engines 1.79

5. Producer gas 6. Blast furnace gas

7. Blue water gas 8. Carbureted water gas

9. Acetylene C 2H2 10. Methane CH 4

11. Ethylene C 2H4 12. Ethane C 2H6

1.21 SOLID FUELS

Coal passes through different stages given below
during its formation.

Plant debris - peat - Lignite - Bituminous coal

Anthracite coal.

Peat: It is a spongy and humidified substance. It is the

first stage in formation of coal. It has low heat value, and
high moisture content. It is difficult for handling and
storing. So it is not used for power generation.

Lignite: It has brown fibrous structure. It has also low

heat value and high moisture content. So it is also not used
for power generation. It is an intermediate product between
peat and bituminous coal.

Bituminous coal: Next stage to lignite is Bituminous

coal. It has little moisture content. So it is mostly used for
power generation. Bituminous coal has two characteristics
which are ‘Caking’ and ‘Non-Caking’. The Caking coal is
useful for gas manufacturing process, while non-caking is
mostly used for steam generation.

Anthracite: It is the final stage in coal formation. It is

exceptionally good for domestic purposes since it gives
smokeless combustion, low ash content and cleanliness in
1.80 Thermal Engineering - I

handling. It has high calorific value and it is mostly used

for steam power plant.

1.22 GASEOUS FUELS:

Natural Gas: It consists of methane CH4 and ethane
C 2H 6. It has high calorific value of 20,000 kJ/m 3 and is
used for both domestic and industrial heating processes.

Coal gas: It is obtained by carbonisation by heating the

bituminous coal. It consists of hydrogen, carbon monoxide
and various hydrocarbons. It is generally used in gas fired
boilers and for commercial purposes.

Producer Gas: It is obtained by the incomplete

combustion of coal, coke, anthracite coal (or) charcoal in a
current of air. It contains more amount of N 2, so it has
less heating value.

Blue water gas: It is obtained by passing steam through

red hot coke. Since it burns with blue flame, it is called
‘Blue water gas’.

Blast furnace Gas: It is a by-product in the production

of pig iron in the blast furnace. It contains large percentage
of N 2 and has low heating value.

Requirements of a Good fuel:

1. Good fuel should have high calorific value.
2. It should have low ignition temperature.
3. It should burn freely with high efficiency.
4. It should not produce any harmful gases.
5. It should produce very less smoke.
6. It should be economical.
 IC Engines 1.81

7. It should be easily stored and transported.

1.23 FUEL PROPERTIES

Brief explanation of fuel properties are given below.

1. Viscosity of Fuel
Viscosity is the resistance offered by the fuel itself to
its flow. Viscosity decreases when the temperature of fuel
increases and vice versa. Good fuel should have proper
viscosity.

2. Pour Point of Fuel

The pour point (freezing point) of fuel must be less
than the lowest climate temperature of atmosphere. In cold
climate days, the fuel should be in liquid state. So its pour
point should be less sufficiently.

3. Sulphur Content in the Fuel

Sulphur present in the fuel is dangerous to engine.
During combustion, the sulphur in the fuel become sulfuric
acid. This acid cause corrosion of engine parts. So the
sulphur content in the fuel should be removed (or) sulphur
content should be kept as minimum as possible.

4. Volatility
The ability to evaporate is called volatility. If the fuel
evaporates in low temperature, then it has high volatility.
The petrol and diesel should have adequate volatility.

5. Flash Point and Fire Point

Flash point is the minimum temperature of fuel when
the fuel gives a momentary flame (or) flash.

Fire point is the minimum temperature of fuel when

the fuel starts continuously burning.
1.82 Thermal Engineering - I

The flash point and fire point of fuels should be

adequate so that it is used in IC engine without any
problem.

6. Calorific Value of Fuels:

The amount of heat liberated by burning 1 kg (or
3
1 m  of fuel is known as Calorific value of fuel (or Heating
value of fuel).

For solid fuel, the unit for calorific value is expressed

in kJ/kg. For liquid and gaseous fuel, the unit is kJ/m 3
measured in S.T.P. condition (i.e., Standard Temperature
and Pressure  15 C and 760 mm of mercury).

Higher Calorific value:

The amount of heat obtained by the complete
combustion of 1 kg of fuel, when the products of combustion
are cooled down to the temperature of the surroundings is
known as Higher Calorific Value HCV of the fuel.

Here the water vapour formed by combustion is

condensed and the entire heat of steam is recovered from
the products of combustion.

Dulong’s formula is used to determine HCV of a

fuel.

 O2  KJ
HCV  33800 C  144000  H 2    9270 S
 8  kg

where C, H 2, S an d O 2 are the fractions of mass of carbon,

hydrogen and sulphur and oxygen in 1 kg of fuel).

Lower Calorific Value (LCV)

The amount of heat obtained by the combustion of 1
kg of fuel, when the product of combustion is not
 IC Engines 1.83

sufficiently cooled down to condense the steam formed

during combustion is known as Lower Calorific Value
(LCV) of the fuel.
So, LCV of the fuel

 H.C.V  Enthalpy of evaporation of steam formed

 H.C.V.  2466  steam formed  K J/k g 

 H.C.V.  2466  9H 2

where 2466 KJ/kg is the specific enthalpy of evaporation of

steam at 15 C .

1.23.1 Determination of Calorific value of fuel by

Bomb Calorimeter
Dulong formula is used for calculating H.C.V (Higher
Calorific Value) of fuel (solid and liquid fuel)

Dulong’s formula
1   O 
H.C.V   33800 C  144000  H    9270 S  kJ
100   8  
Thus the H.C.V is got by using chemical analysis.

But for determining H.C.V in the laboratory, the

bomb calorimeter is used.

Bomb Calorimeter:
Since the shape of the calorimeter resembles the
bomb, it is named as bomb calorimeter.

The crucible is filled by 1 gm of sample fuel. We

should ensure that the fuse wire has close contact with the
fuel. The bomb is now supplied with oxygen and with a
pressure of 25 atmosphere through oxygen valve. The
1.84 Thermal Engineering - I

Th ermo m eter
C o pp er
C a lorim eter
O2
O xyg en
valve to
allo w O 2
R e lease
valve to
release
exhaust g as
Bo m b
w a ter
(m esured quantity)

Fu se w ire
.. . . .

C rucible
Wa te r Se al fille d
to preve nt w ith
w a ter ente rin g 1gm of
fuel
Leads to
M ains fuse
R h eo stat

Fig. 1.32 Bom b calorimeter

calorimeter is filled with measured quantity of water and

the water is stirred for uniform temperature distribution.
Now due to combustion of fuel, heat is released. This
heat is used to heat the water in the calorimeter.
The thermometer indicates the steady temperature
1
rise of fuel. The temperature readings are noted every
2
min until it reaches the maximum temperature.
Now the bomb is taken out from calorimeter. The
products of combustion are released with the help of release
valve. It is allowed to dry. Unburnt fused wire if any, is
 IC Engines 1.85

collected and weighed. By using above observations, the

temperature - time curve is plotted.
The heat liberated by the fuel on combustion is
absorbed by the water and calorimeter.
By equating,

Heat released by the sample fuel  Heat received by water

and calorimeter.

By using above equation, we can find out Higher

Calorific Value H.C.V of solid and liquid fuel.

1.23.2 Determination of Higher Calorific value of

Gaseous fuel.

By using Juncker’s Gas Calorimeter

This is similar to Bomb Calorimeter

Heat liberated by the gas  Heat gained by surrounding

cold water.

The above equation is used for calculating calorific

value of gas.
The Gas meter is used for allowing measured quantity
of gas by recording its volume. The pressure regulator is
used for measuring the pressure of gas and allowing limited
pressure of gas. When the gas burns, the heat is liberated.
This heat is used to heat the surrounding water. The hot
products of combustion travel upwards in chamber and then
downwards through flues and finally goes through outlet.
During its travel, the heat is transferred to the water.
The exit temperature of travelling gas should be very
close to the atmospheric temperature, so that all the heat
liberated by gaseous fuel should be transferred to cold
1.86 Thermal Engineering - I

co ld w ater Th erm om eter

T herm om e te r
To F low m eter
to m easu re
qu antity of w a te r
H ot p ro duc ts
of com bu stion
(i.e.,exha ust
w ater ga ses)

Th erm om eter

E xhau st
G as m eter ( G ase s) to
atm osp here

P re ssure C ond ens ate

regu la to r

Fig . 1.33 Ju nker’s g as calo rim e ter

water. Thermometers are fitted at various places to

measure the temperatures at various points.
By knowing quantity of gas and water and
temperature of inlet and outlet water, we can find the
calorific value of gaseous fuel.

Atomic mass and Molecular mass:

The atomic mass of Hydrogen is taken as unity. The
atomic mass of other elements are determined with respect
to atomic mass of hydrogen.
For example, the atomic mass of nitrogen is 14 ie
Nitrogen atom is 14 times heavier than hydrogen atom.
Similarly, the atomic mass of oxygen is 16. ie Oxygen atom
is 16 times heavier than hydrogen atom.
Molecular mass: (or) Molecular weight
The molecular mass of a substance is the number of
times a molecule of that substance is heavier than the
hydrogen atom.
 IC Engines 1.87

For example, one molecule of oxygen consists of two

atoms of oxygen.
So molecular weight of oxygen  2  16  32 . i.e., The
molecule of oxygen is 32 times heavier than hydrogen atom.
The following table gives the symbols, atomic weights
(atomic mass) molecular weights (molecular mass) of
various elements and compounds (molecules).
Atomic Molecular
Weight weight
Substance Symbol
(Atomic (Molecular
mass) mass)
Elements
Hydrogen H2 1 2
Oxygen O2 16 32 (ie 2  16
Nitrogen N2 14 28 ie 2  14 
Carbon C 12 12
Sulphur S 32 32
Compounds
(Molecules)
Carbon monoxide CO - 12  16  28
Carbon dioxide CO 2 - 12  32  44
Sulphur dioxide SO 2 - 32  32  64
Water (or) steam H 2O - 2  16  18
Methane CH 4 - 12  4  16
Ethane C 2H 6 - 24  6  30
Acetylene C 2H 2 - 24  2  26
Ethylene C 2H 4 - 24  4  28
1.88 Thermal Engineering - I

1.24 COMBUSTION STOICHIOMETRY

The following chemical equations are used to find the
amount of oxygen required and the amount of gases
produced by the combustion of fuel.

Combustion means burning.

1. For Complete Combustion of Carbon:

When carbon burns by taking sufficient amount of
oxygen in the air, the carbon dioxide is produced. During
this reaction, a large amount of heat is released.

C arbon  O xygen  Ca rbon dioxide

C  O 2  CO 2

Molecular Weights: 12  32  44

8 11
Divide by 12: 1  
3 3

8
i.e., 1 kg of carbon requires kg of oxygen for
3
11
complete combustion and produces kg of carbon
3
dioxide.

8 11
i.e., 1 kg C  kg of O 2  kg of C O2
3 3

2. For Incomplete combustion of carbon:

If the air supplied is insufficient, then sufficient
oxygen will not be available. Then the combustion of carbon
will be incomplete. In this case, the carbon monoxide will
be produced.
 IC Engines 1.89

ie Carbon  Oxygen  Carbon monoxide

2C  O2  2CO

Molecular Weights: 2  12  32  2  28  56

4 7
Divide by 24 : 1  
3 3

4
So 1 kg of carbon requires kg of oxygen and
3
7
produces kg of carbon monoxide.
3

4 7
ie 1 kg of C  kg of O 2  kg of CO
3 3

3. Combustion of Carbon monoxide:

When carbon monoxide is burnt further, it produces
carbon dioxide.

i.e., 2CO  O2  2CO 2

2CO  O 2  2CO 2

Molecular weights: 2  28  32  2  44

4 11
Divide by 56 : 1  
7 7

4
So 1 kg of carbon monoxide requires kg of
7
11
oxygen and produces kg of carbon dioxide.
7

4 11
ie 1 kg of CO  kg of O2  kg of CO2
7 7
1.90 Thermal Engineering - I

4. For combustion of sulphur:

During combustion, sulphur in the fuel burns with
oxygen and produces sulphur dioxide.

Sulphur  Oxygen  Sulphur dioxide

S  O 2  SO 2

Molecular weights: 32  32  64

Divide by 32 : 1  1  2

So 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of oxygen for

complete combustion and produces 2 kg of sulphur
dioxide.

ie 1 kg of S  1 kg of O 2  2 kg of SO 2

5. For combustion of hydrogen:

During combustion, hydrogen in the fuel combines
with the oxygen and produces water vapour (or) steam.

Hydrogen  Oxygen  Water vapour

2H 2  O 2  2H 2O

Molecular weights: 2  2  32  2  18  36

Divide by 4 : 1  8  9

So 1 kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of oxygen and

produces 9 kg of water vapour (or) steam.

ie 1 kg of H 2  8 kg of O 2  9 kg of H 2O

6. For combustion of methane (or) marsh gas:

During combustion, methane burns with oxygen and
produces carbon-di-oxide and water vapour.

Methane  Oxygen  Carbon dioxide  Water vapour

 IC Engines 1.91

CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2O

Molecular weights: 16  2  32  4  2  18

11 9
Divide by 16: 1  4  
4 4

So, 1 kg of methane requires 4 kg of oxygen and

11 9
produces kg of carbon-dioxide and kg of water
4 4
vapour.
i.e.,
11 9
1 kg of CH 4  4 kg of O 2  kg of CO 2  kg of H 2O
4 4

7. For combustion of ethylene:

Ethylene  Oxygen  Carbondioxide  Water vapour

C 2H 4  3O2  2CO 2  2H 2O

Molecular weights: 28  3  32  2  44  2  18

24 22 9
Divide by 28: 1   
7 7 7

24
So 1 kg of ethylene requires kg of oxygen to
7
22 9
produce kg of carbon-di-oxide and kg of water
7 7
vapour

24 22
i.e., 1 kg of C 2H 4  kg of O 2  kg of CO 2
7 7
9
 kg of water vapour
7

Atmospheric Air: Atmospheric air contains oxygen,

nitrogen, a little amount of carbon-di-oxide and very very
1.92 Thermal Engineering - I

little amount of neon, argon and kryton etc. The oxygen is

very much necessary for complete combustion of fuel (any
fuel). Normally, the composition of atmospheric air is given
below.

Nitrogen  77 % and Oxygen  23% By weight or mass

Nitrogen  79 % and Oxygen  21% By volume

Minimum mass of (Stoichiometric) air required for

complete combustion of solid and liquid fuels:

The theoretical (or) minimum mass of Oxygen

required for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel can be
determined by the chemical analysis of the fuel.

Now consider 1 kg of a fuel. It contains

Carbon - C kg
Hydrogen - H 2 kg
Oxygen - O 2 kg and
Sulphur - S kg
For complete combustion
8
1 kg of carbon requires kg of O 2
3

8
So, C kg of carbon requires C kg of O 2
3

Similarly 1 kg of Hydrogen requires 8 kg of O 2

So, H 2 kg of hydrogen requires 8H 2 kg of O 2

Similarly, 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of O 2

So, S kg of sulphur requires S kg of O 2.

 IC Engines 1.93

 Total oxygen required for complete combustion of

8
1 kg of fuel  C  8 H 2  S kg
3

If some amount of oxygen (say O 2 kg ) is already

available in the fuel, then

Net oxygen required for complete combustion of 1 kg

8 
of fuel   C  8H 2  S   O 2 kg
 3 
For 23 kg of oxygen  100 kg of air is required.

. .
[ . Composition of air in mass: N 2  77 % and O 2  23% ]

For
8  
  3 C  8 H 2  S   O 2  Kg of oxygen, the air required
  
100  8 
 C  8H 2  S  O 2  kg of air
23  3 
 Theoretical (minimum (or) stoichiometric) mass of
air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is
given by m air m in

100  8 
mair min  C  8H 2  S  O 2  kg
23  3 
Theoretical (minimum) volume of air required for
complete combustion:

Consider 1 kg of a gaseous fuel. It contains

Carbon monoxide - CO m 3
Hydrogen - H2 m3
Methane - CH 4 m 3
1.94 Thermal Engineering - I

Ethylene - C 2H 4 m 3
For complete combustion of the gas
1 m3 carbon monoxide requires 0.5 m3 of O 2

So CO m 3 of carbon monoxide requires 0.5 CO m 3 of O 2

Similarly, 1 m3 of hydrogen requires 0.5 m3 of O 2

So H 2 m 3 of hydrogen requires 0.5 H 2 m 3 of O2

Similarly, 1 m3 of methane requires 2 m 3 of O 2

CH 4 m 3 of methane requires 2 CH 4 m 3 of O 2

Similarly, 1 m3 of ethylene requires 3 m 3 of O 2

C 2H 4 m 3 of ethylene requires 3 C2H 4 m 3 of O 2

Total volume of oxygen required for complete

3
combustion of 1 m of fuel

 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3 C2H4 m 3

If some amount of oxygen (say O 2 m 3) is already

available in the fuel, then
Net oxygen required for complete combustion of
3
1m of fuel  0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 m 3

We know that oxygen present in the air is 21% by

volume.

So for 21 m 3 of oxygen  100 m 3 of air is required

[ 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 ] m 3

For of
oxygen, the air required is
 IC Engines 1.95

100
 [ 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 ] m 3
21

 Minimum (Theoretical) volume of air required for

combustion of 1 m3 of fuel, V min air

100
V min air  [ 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 ] m 3
21

1.25 EXCESS AIR AND AIR FUEL RATIO CALCULATION

If just minimum (theoretical) amount of air is
supplied, some amount of fuel may be unburnt. It is due
to the fact, that all the air supplied does not have intimate
contact with the fuel particles. So, the excess air is supplied
to ensure complete and rapid combustion of fuel. The
amount of excess air supplied depends on the quantity of
fuel, rate of combustion, firing conditions etc. Normally,
25% to 50% excess air is supplied. The excess air gives
cooling effect. But this can be avoided by preheating the
air.

Mass of excess air supplied can be calculated by the

mass of unused oxygen available in the flue gases.

100
kg of air is required for 1 kg of oxygen.
23

 Excess air supplied

100
  Mass of oxygen in flue gases
23

Excess air supplied (approximate) per kg of fuel

79  O 2  C

21  33 CO 2  CO
1.96 Thermal Engineering - I

where O 2, CO 2 and CO represents % of them by volume and

C represents % of it by mass.

Total air supplied  minimum Theoretical air  E xcess air

m total  m airmin  mexcess

Total air supplied (approximate) per kg of fuel

N2  C

33 CO2  CO

where N 2 is the % of nitrogen in flue gases by volume.

This is also known as Air fuel ratio.

Mass of carbon in flue gases:

The mass of carbon in flue gases, can be calculated
from the mass of CO 2 and CO present in them. During
combustion,

11
1 kg of carbon produces kg of CO 2
3

3
 1 kg of CO 2 contains kg of carbon
11

7
Similarly, 1 kg of carbon produces kg of CO.
3

3
 1 kg of CO contains kg of carbon.
7

Ma ss of carbon 3 3
  kg of CO 2  kg of CO
in flue gases 11 7

where CO 2 and CO are the amounts of CO 2 and CO present

in 1 kg of flue gases respectively.
 IC Engines 1.97

Mass of flue gases per kg of fuel burnt:

Since there is no loss of carbon during combustion,
the mass of flue gases can be obtained by comparing the
mass of carbon present in the flue gases with the mass of
carbon present in the fuel.

Mass of flue gases per kg of fuel

Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel kg of flue gas


Mass of carbon in 1 kg of flue gas kg of fuel

Actual mass of air supplied (or Air fuel ratio)

By volumetric composition of flue gases and mass of
carbon in 1 kg of fuel, we can calculate,

The a ctual mass of air or  Air fuel ratio

 N2  kg of air
 3.03 C  
kg of fuel
 CO 2  CO 
where C  mass of carbon in 1 k g of fuel

N 2  % by volume of N 2 in flue gases

CO 2  % by volume of CO 2 in flue gases

CO  % by volum e of CO in flue gases

By Gravimetric composition of flue gases and mass of

carbon in 1 kg of fuel, we can calculate

The actu al air sup plied or Air fuel ratio

100  N 2  C kg of air

21 CO 2  33 CO kg of fuel

where C  Mass of carb on in 1 kg of fuel

N 2  % by mass of N 2 in flue gases

1.98 Thermal Engineering - I

CO 2  % by mass of CO 2 in flue gases

CO  % by mass of CO in flue gases

Note: If the fuel contains appreciable amount of nitrogen,

then the above two formulae should not be used.

% of excess air
Actual A  F ratio  Stoichiometric A  F ratio

Stoichiometric A  F ratio

Problem 2.5: A sample of coal has the following composition

by mass. C 70% ; H2 8%, O2 10% ; N2 3% ; sulphur S 2% and
ash 7%. Determine its higher calorific value and lower calorific
value per kg of fuel.

Solution:
C  0.7 kg ; H 2  8%  0.08 kg ; O 2  10%  0.1 kg ;
N 2  3% unnecessary data); Ash  7% unnecessary data);
S  2%  0.02 kg

Higher Calorific Value H.C.V

 O2 
H.C.V  33800 C  144000  H 2    9270 S
 8 

 0.1 
 33800  0.7  144000  0.08   9270  0.02
 8 

 33565.5 kJ/kg

Lower Calorific Value L.C.V

L.C.V  H .C.V  9H 2  2466 

 33565.5  9  0.08  2466

 31789.88 kJ/kg
 IC Engines 1.99

Problem 2.6: A fuel consists of 85% Carbon, 12% of hydrogen,

3% of residual matter by mass. Find the Higher Calorific Value
and Lower Calorific Values per kg of fuel.

Solution:
C  85%  0.85 kg ; H 2  12%  0.12 kg

Residual matter  3% [This data is not necessary for

solving problem].
Higher Calorific Value
H.C.V  33800 C  144000 H 2 . .
[ . O2  0 ;
 33800  0.85  144000  0.12 S0]

 46010 kJ/kg

Lower Calorific Value

L.C.V  H.C.V  9H 2  2466 

 46010  9  0.12  2466 

 43,347 kJ/kg
 Chapter 2

Combustion in SI and CI Engine

Combustion in SI and CI Engine: Normal combustion and

abnormal combustion in SI Engine - Importance of flame speed
and effect of engine variables - Abnormal combustion - Pre Ignition
and Knocking in SI Engine - Fuel requirement and fuel rating -
anti knock additives - combustion chamber - Requirement - types
of SI Engine - Four stages of combustion in CI Engine - Delay
period and its Importance - Effect of engine variables - Diesel
knock - Need for air movement, suction, compression and
combustion induced turbulence in Diesel engine - Open and
divided combustion chambers and fuel Injection - Diesel fuel
requirements and fuel rating.

2.1 NORMAL COMBUSTION

A high intensity spark is produced by a spark plug.
This spark travels through the air fuel mixture. This spark
leaves a thin thread of flame behind it. The air-fuel mixture
enveloped around the thin thread of flame gets ignited and
combustion commences. Since the air fuel mixture is in
turbulent condition, the surface area of heat transfer is
more and combustion is speeded up enormously.

In P-V diagram (Fig. 2.1), we can see the stages of

normal combustion. LNQM is the normal compression
curve. At point N, the ignition starts [N is the point 35
before TDC]. At point Q, pressure rise can be noticed. From
point M , sudden pressure rise occurs.

Ignition lag: The time period between first igniting fuel

and commencement of main phase of combustion is called
2.2 Thermal Engineering - I

2
P (kg f/cm )

For b est pe rfo rm ance

o o
a t 1 0 to 12
M ax.P r.

40

Ig nitio n E xpa nsion

a dvance

M
C om p re ssio n Q
N
S
L
o o o o o o o o o

B D C 1 50 1 20 90 60 30 TD C 3 0 60 90
o
1 20 1 50 BDC
Fig.2.1

ignition lag (or) period of incubation. The ignition lag

is normally 0.0015 sec.
(Pre-ignition  Detonation  Engine failure)

Ignition Advance: The ignition actually starts at about

35 before TDC. This angle of crank is called ignition
advance.
Maximum pressure: The maximum pressure inside the
cylinder is attained at about 10to 12 after TDC.

After Burning: Once it reaches its maximum pressure,

the ignition stops. But at this point the whole heat of the
fuel is not liberated. So the remaining heat in the fuel is
burnt after this maximum pressure point. This is called
‘after burning’.
The different steps of normal combustion is shown in
following Fig. 2.2.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.3

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Sp ark C om bu stion C om bu stion C om bu stion

pro duce d starts spreads com pleted
Fig. 2.2.

2.1.1 Factors affecting normal combustion in S.I

Engines
1. Induction pressure
As the pressure falls, delay period increases, and the
ignition must be earlier at low pressures.

Id ea l C om bu stio n
Tem p era tu re

M ax
C o m b ustion
w ith D isso cia tio n

W ea k R ich
A ir Fuel R atio .
Fig. 2.3.

2. Engine speed
When the engine speed increases, the delay period
time needs more crank angle and ignition should take place
earlier.
2.4 Thermal Engineering - I

3. Ignition timing
If the ignition takes place too early, then the peak
pressure will occur early and work transfer falls. If the
ignition takes place too late, then peak pressure will be low
and the work transfer falls.

4. Fuel choice
The calorific value and enthalpy of vaporisation will
affect the temperature achieved. The induction period of the
fuel will affect the delay period.

5. Combustion chamber
The combustion chamber should be designed to give
shorter flame path to avoid knocking and it should give
proper turbulence.

6. Compression ratio
When the compression ratio increases, it increases the
maximum pressure and the work transfer.

7. Mixture strength
The rich mixture is necessary for producing the
maximum work transfer.

2.1.2 Flame Front Propagation

The concept of flame propagation speed is important
in SI engines, as it may lead to detonation.
Flame front is the front surface of the flame that
separates the burnt charges from the unburnt one.
The rate of movement of flame front across the
combustion chamber is based on reaction rate and
transposition rate. The reaction rate is the result of
chemical reaction occurring within a region where unburnt
mixture is heated and converted into products.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.5

The transposition rate is due to the movement of

flame frant relative to the cylinder wall. It is also the result
of pressure differences existing between the burning and
unburnt gases in the combustion chamber.

2.3 IMPORTANCE OF FLAME SPEED AND EFFECT OF

ENGINE VARIABLES

Flame speed
Flame speed is the speed at which the flame travels.

Flame speed affects the combustion phenomena,

pressure developed and power produced.

Burning rate of mixture depends on the flame speed

and shape of combustion chamber.

2.3.1 Factors affecting flame speed

1. Turbulence
It helps in mixing and boosts the chemical reaction.
A lean mixture can be burnt easily without any difficulties.
The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixture and
increases with increase in turbulence. Turbulence consisting
of many minute swirls increases the rate of reaction and
produces a higher flame speed than that of larger and fewer
swirls.

2. Engine speed
When engine speed increases, flame speed also
increases due to the turbulence inside the engine cylinder.
The crank angle required for the flame propagation during
the entire phase of combustion, will remain constant at all
speeds.
2.6 Thermal Engineering - I

3. Engine size
The time taken for flame propagation is smaller in
small engines when compared to larger engines.

In larger engines, the time required for complete

combustion is more because the flame has to travel a longer
distance.

3. Compression ratio
A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and
temperature of mixture.

This reduces the initial phase of combustion and

hence less ignition advance is needed. High pressure and
temperature of the compressed mixture also speed up the
second phase of combustion.

Increased compression ratio reduces the clearance

volume. Thus engines having higher compression ratio have
higher flame speed.

A further increase in the peak pressure and

temperature results in the increase in the tendency of the
engine to detonate.

4. Inlet temperature and pressure

When the inlet temperature and pressure increases,
it results in better homogenous mixture which helps to
increase the flame speed.

5. Fuel-Air ratio
The highest flame speed obtained with slightly rich
mixture gives complete combustion. Lean mixtures have low
thermal energy and hence have low flame speed. A rich
mixture burns readily and completely, resulting in higher
flame speeds. A stoichiometric air fuel ratio is usually
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.7

chosen to prevent compromise on flame speed and air fuel

ratio.

0 .00 6

S tio c hio m e tric M ixture

Tim e in S e con ds

0 .00 4

0 .00 2

60 1 00 1 40 1 80
L ea n R ich
M ixtu re M ixtu re
Fig. 2.4 Effect of m ixture stren gth on flam e pro paga tion tim e

6. Engine output
When the engine output is increased, the cycle
pressure also increases. With the increased throttle opening
the cylinder gets filled to a higher density of mixture. This
results in increased flame speed. When the output is
decreased by throttling, the initial & final pressure
decreases.
Poor combustion at low loads and the necessity of
mixture enrichment causes wastage of fuel and discharge
of products like carbon monoxide etc. in the atmosphere
which are the main disadvantages of SI engines.
2.8 Thermal Engineering - I

2.2 ABNORMAL COMBUSTION

The abnormal combustion deviates from the normal
behavior resulting in loss of performance and physical
damage to the engine.
There are two types of Abnormal combustion.
1. Pre-ignition
2. Knocking (or) Detonation (or) Pinking
2.2.1 Pre-ignition

. .... .
.. . .. ... . .. ... . . . . .. . .. . ..... .. .. ... . .. ... . . . . .. . . .
. .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... . ....
. . . . . . ... . . .. . . .. . . .. . .

Ignition started Sp ark p ro duced Bo th flam es Bo th flam es

at left side b y ho t by S pa rk Plug S o spread fast C o llide d
carbon deposits regular ig nition
insid e the starts from the
com b ustion right side.
cham ber Ignition b ecause o f ho t d ep osits
also sp read from the
left side . Fig. 2.5. Pre ignition

Pre-ignition
High temperature carbon deposits formed inside the
combustion chamber ignite the airfuel mixture before
normal ignition occurs by spark plug. This ignition due to
hot carbon deposits is called pre-ignition. After some time
of Pre-ignition, the normal ignition starts and both the
flames get collided.
If Pre-ignition occurs much early in the compression
stroke, the work to compress the charge will be increased.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.9

So the net power output will be reduced. Also this may

cause crank failure due to high load to compress charge.
Pre-ignition causes very high pressure and temperature. It
causes the detonation. Pre-ignition is considered as
abnormal combustion.
2.2.2 Knocking (or) Detonation (or) Pinking

Sp ark Com bustion Very h igh temp. Detonation

pro duces starts flam e com press the
remaining charge
Fig. 2.6. D etonation

There are two general theories of detonation:

1. The auto-ignition theory

2. Detonation theory

A sudden and violent noise (knock) experienced inside

the engine cylinder is known as Detonation. This detonation
is due to high pressure waves striking the cylinder walls,
cylinder head and piston with loud noise.

When spark occurs, the combustion of fuel near the

spark plug commences. The flame travels through
combustion chamber with high speed. The high pressure
and high temperature gases produced by this ignition
compress the fresh charge in front of the moving flame.
Hence the temperature and pressure of fresh charge is
2.10 Thermal Engineering - I

increased beyond the limit and a spontaneous ignition takes

place in far away from spark plug. This zone, far away
from spark plugs where spontaneous ignition takes place is
called ‘detonating zone’.
This auto ignition spreads throughout the air-fuel
mixture making its temperature and pressure rise further
and produces loud pulsating sound called ‘pinking’ or
‘knocking’ or ‘hammer-blow’.

The temperature in the detonating zone is higher

than the non-detonating zone. More heat is lost in the
surface of the combustion chamber and as a result, the
output of engine is decreased.

In mild detonation, the engine surface will be heated

up. In severe detonation, fracture may occur on the engine.

Due to detonation, carbon may be deposited inside the

combustion chamber. When this carbon deposit gets heated,
its temperature will be very high to preignite the fresh
charge which is known as pre-ignition.

Detonation occurs after sparking and pre-ignition

occurs before sparking. One of the causes for pre-ignition
is detonation.

The detonation can be reduced by properly designing

the combustion chamber so that there is always a
turbulence of mixture.

2.2.3 The phenomenon of knock in SI Engine

In spark-ignition engine, the combustion is initiated
using spark-plug electrodes which spread combustible
mixture across the chamber. A flame front is used to
separate the fresh mixture from the product of combustion.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.11

In combustion chamber, burnt part of mixture has higher

pressure & temperature than the unburnt mixture. To
maintain a pressure equilization, the burnt mixture will
expand and compress the unburnt mixture adiabatically
there by increasing its pressure and temperature. The
flame front propagates completely till the end of the
cylinder, thereby leaving the unburnt mixture at an
increased pressure and temperature.
The temperature of unburnt mixture exceeds the
self-ignition temperature during preflame reaction and
hence spontaneous ignition occurs at various points inside
the engine. This phenomenon is called knocking.
An important fact about knocking is that it is very
much dependent on the properties of the fuel.
Knocking does not occur when the unburnt charge
does not reach the auto ignition temperature, or in other
words, in ignition lag period, if the flame front takes more
time to burn the unburnt charge, no knocking occurs. But
if the flame front takes less time to burn the unburnt
charge, knocking occurs [since the end charge will
detonate]. Hence, fuels with high auto ignition temperature
and a long ignition lag are often used as fuels for S.I
engines, inorder to avoid detonation.
In summary, during auto ignition, two different cases
are encountered.
 A large amount of mixture gets autoignited
leading to a very rapid increase in pressure
throughout the combustion chamber and there will
be a direct blow on the engine structure. This
results in the thudding sound and consequent
2.12 Thermal Engineering - I

noise from the free vibration of the moving parts.

These noises can be detected by human ears.
 A large pressure difference may exist in the
combustion chamber and the resulting gas
vibrations force the walls of the chamber to
vibrate in the same frequency as that of the gas.
In this case, an audible sound may be evident.
Normally knocking combustion in an engine is often
detected by a distinct audible sound. But a scientific
method of detecting the phenomenon of knocking involves
the use of a ‘Pressure Transducer’.
The output of this pressure transducer is connected
to a cathode ray oscilloscope. The pressure-time traces
obtained due to the presence or absence of knock are shown
in Fig. 2.7.
P re ss ure

Ig nitio n
Po
we
s s io n
C o m p re r

BDC TD C BDC
Tim e
(a) N orm al C o m bu stion
P ressure

Ig nitio n
Po
io n we
ess r
C om pr
BDC TD C BDC

Tim e
(b) K no ck ing C o m bu stion

Fig. 2.7. R esu lts Plo tted b y P ressure Transd ucer.

 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.13

2.2.4 Effects of knocking in SI Engine

1. Noise and Roughness
Knocking produces a loud pulsating noise and
pressure waves. These waves vibrates back and forth across
the cylinder. The presence of this vibratory motion causes
crank shaft vibration and the engine runs roughly.
2. Mechanical Damage
1. The high pressure wave generated during knocking
can increase rate of wear of parts in combustion
chamber. Severe erosion of piston crown, cylinder
head and small holes created on inlet and outlet
valves may result in complete damage of the engine.
2. Due to Detonation, high noise level occurs in engine.
In small engines, the noise can be easily detected
and corrective measures can be taken, but in large
engines, it is difficult to detect knocking noise and
hence corrective measures cannot be taken which
results in complete damage of the piston.
3. Carbon deposits
Detonation leads to a huge amount of carbon
deposition at the engine outlet.
4. Increase in heat transfer
Knocking is accompanied with the increase in rate of
heat transfer across the combustion chamber walls.
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency
Due to increase in the rate of heat transfer, the power
output as well as efficiency of the engine decreases.
2.14 Thermal Engineering - I

6. Pre-Ignition
The increase in heat transfer on the walls causes local
overheating of the spark plug which may reach a
temperature high enough to ignite the charge before the
passage of spark, thus leading to pre-ignition. An engine
detonating over a long period of time often results in
preignition which is the real danger of detonation.

2.2.5 Effect of engine variables on knock

It has already been established that the knocking of
an engine typically depends upon either the quantity of the
charge inside the chamber, the temperature of the chamber
or the time of detonation. Hence, the different variables
which affect knocking can be classified into

 Density factors
 Time factors
 Composition factors
1. Density factors
Density factors deal with the basic mass properties of
the charge present inside the cylinder. The properties
include different thermodynamic variables like the
temperature of the charge, pressure, volume of charge,
density etc. It is evident that the auto ignition can be
prevented if the temperature of the charge entering the
cylinder is minimum. Similarly, a charge at lower pressure
is less likely to cause a knock. This is due to the reduced
energy of the charge, disabling it from combusting
automatically. The different density factors which affect the
knocking/phenomenon are discussed below.

Compression Ratio: Higher compression ratio simply

implies that the pressure of the air-fuel mixture is quite
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.15

high. Hence, the temperature of the gases at the end of

compression is also high. Therefore, upon combustion, there
is a considerable decrease in ignition delay. This directly
increases the possibility of a knock. Hence, to prevent
knocking, it is always wise to limit the compression ratio
to a lower value, but not low enough to drastically decrease
the efficiency of the engine.
Charge temperature: An increased inlet temperature of
the air-fuel mixture causes it to rise above the normal
temperature at the end of the compression stroke. Due to
this increased temperature, the ignition delay is decreased,
resulting in knocking of the engine. However, a low inlet
temperature could result in vapourization and starting
problems in an engine.
Mass of fuel injected: A reduced amount of charge
experiences lower pressure and has lower energy when
compared to normal levels. Thus, the temperature of the
reduced amount of charge at the end of the compression,
is not high enough to cause knocking. Hence, the possibility
of a knock is directly proportional to the mass of the charge
inside the cylinder.
Cylinder wall temperature: The combustion chamber is
continuously subjected to several frictional and thermal
stresses during operation. Hence, the walls of the chamber
may develop minute hotspots which could ignite a fuel
before the anticipated time, thereby resulting in knocking.
Hence, uniform cooling of the walls using an efficient
coolant is of paramount importance. Moreover, the exhaust
valves and the spark plugs are the most hottest regions
inside the cylinder. Hence, the concentration of the
2.16 Thermal Engineering - I

compression against these regions, is to be avoided to

reduce knocking.
Horse power: High powered engines operate at high
temperatures and pressures. Thus the chances of a knock
to occur in a high powered engine is greater than that of
a low powered engine.
2. Time factors
Time factors play an important role in determining
the chances of a knock in an engine. Some common time
factors are flame speed, velocity of the charge, engine speed
etc. The effect of different time factors on the knock of an
engine is discussed below.
Velocity of the charge: A turbulent charge ignites much
faster than a non-turbulent charge. Thus, the flames
propagate much faster, leaving little margin for the end
charge to auto ignite. Thus, the chances of a knock is
reduced effectively by increasing the velocity of the charge,
above its turbulent level.
Engine speeds: At higher engine speeds, the turbulence
of the charge increases greatly. This results in reduced
knocking, as discussed above.
Flame travel distance: It has been well established that
a faster flame reduces knocking possibilities when
compared to a slower flame. Hence, if the time taken for
the flame to travel across the chamber is reduced, knocking
can be prevented. This can be done by either decreasing
the combustion chamber size, or by repositioning the spark
plug appropriately.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.17

A centrally placed spark plug, or usage of two or more

plugs, can effectively reduce the knocking of an engine.

Combustion chamber configuration

A combustion chamber should be designed in such a
way that it promotes the turbulence of the particles inside.
Moreover, the chamber should be made as spherical as
possible with the least possible height. These two factors
can effectively reduce the flame travel time, thereby
preventing knocking.

3. Composition factor
Composition factor deals with the flammability of the
charge present inside the cylinder. Air-fuel ratio and the
octane number of the fuel are the most important
composition factors pertaining to the knocking phenomenon.

(i) Air-fuel ratio: Flame speeds depend upon the air-fuel

ratio. It varies as per the type of fuel used. The flame
temperatures and the reaction time also vary based on the
air-fuel ratio.

If a specific ratio can cause low reaction time, then

this ratio can give way to increased chances of knocking.

(ii) Octane value

Knocking can be reduced by either increasing the
self-igniting temperature of a fuel or by reducing its
pre-flame reactivity.

In general, Aromatic hydrocarbons have the minimum

tendency to knock an engine, where as the paraffin series
are more likely to knock an engine. Any appropriate
compound with a compact molecular structure is less prone
to knock an engine.
2.18 Thermal Engineering - I

2.3 FUEL REQUIREMENT AND FUEL RATING

2.3.1 Important properties of fuel in SI Engine

The fuel characteristics that are important for the
performances of internal combustion engines are

 Volatility of the fuel.

 Detonation characteristics.
 Good thermal properties like heat of combustion
and heat of evaporation.
 Sulphur content.
 Aromatic content.
 Cleanliness of fuel.

2.3.2 Important characteristics of SI Engine fuel

Every engine is designed for a particular fuel
according to its desired qualities.

For good performance of SI engine, the fuel used must

have the proper characteristics like,

 It should readily mix with air to make an uniform

mixture at inlet.
 It must be knock resistant.
 It should not pre-ignite easily.
 It should not tend to decrease the volumetric
efficiency of the engine.
 Its sulphur content should be low.
 It must have adequate calorific value.
 It must have proper viscosity.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.19

2.3.4 Fuel properties

Brief explanation of fuel properties are given below.
1. Viscosity of Fuel
Viscosity is the resistance offered by the fuel to its
own flow. Viscosity decreases when the temperature of fuel
increases and vice versa. Good fuel should have proper
viscosity.
2. Pour Point of Fuel
The pour point (freezing point) of fuel must be less
than the lowest climate temperature of atmosphere. In cold
climate days, the fuel should be in liquid state. So its pour
point should be less sufficiently.
3. Sulphur Content in the Fuel
Sulphur present in the fuel is dangerous to engine.
During combustion, the sulphur in the fuel become sulfuric
acid. This acid causes corrosion of engine parts. So the
sulphur content in the fuel should be removed (or) sulphur
content should be kept as minimum as possible.
4. Volatility
The ability to evaporate is called volatility. If the fuel
evaporates in low temperature, then it has high volatility.
The petrol and diesel should have adequate volatility.
5. Flash Point and Fire Point
Flash point is the minimum temperature of fuel when
the fuel gives a momentary flame (or) flash.
Fire point is the minimum temperature of fuel when
the fuel starts continuously burning.
The flash point and fire point of fuels should be
adequate so that it is used in IC engine without any
problem.
2.20 Thermal Engineering - I

6. Calorific Value of Fuels:

The amount of heat liberated by burning 1 kg (or
3
1 m  of fuel is known as Calorific value of fuel (or Heating
value of fuel).

For solid fuel, the unit for calorific value is expressed

in kJ/kg. For liquid and gaseous fuel, the unit is kJ/m3
measured in S.T.P. condition (i.e., Standard Temperature
and Pressure  15 C and 760 mm of mercury).

Higher Calorific value:

The amount of heat obtained by the complete
combustion of 1 kg of fuel, when the products of combustion
are cooled down to the temperature of the surroundings is
known as Higher Calorific Value HCV  of the fuel.

Here the water vapour formed by combustion is

condensed and the entire heat of steam is recovered from
the products of combustion.

Dulong’s formula is used to determine HCV of a

fuel.

 O2  kJ
HCV  33800 C  144000  H 2    9270 S
 8  kg

where C , H2, S and O 2 are the fractions of mass of carbon,

hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen in 1 kg of fuel.

Lower Calorific Value (LCV)

The amount of heat obtained by the combustion of 1
kg of fuel, when the product of combustion is not
sufficiently cooled down to condense the steam formed
during combustion is known as Lower Calorific Value
(LCV) of the fuel.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.21

So, LCV of the fuel

 H.C.V  Enthalpy of evaporation o f steam fo rmed

 H.C.V.  2466  steam fo rmed  kJ/kg

 H.C.V.  2466  9 H2

where 2466 kJ/kg is the specific enthalpy of evaporation of

steam at 15 C.

2.3.5 Octane Number (ON)

Octane Number (gaseous fuel) indicates the
anti-knock properties of a fuel, based on the comparison of
mixtures of Iso octane and normal heptane.

Fuel rating for SI engine

Octane value is for SI engines

Octane Number: (Applicable for SI Engine) This is a

number to rate the petrol fuel according to its detonating
tendency. If the fuel has the tendency to detonate less, then
it has high octane number and vice versa.

 Iso-octane is a high rating fuel (i.e. detonation is

less).
 Normal heptane is a low rating fuel (i.e. detonation
is more).
Iso-octane and normal heptane are mixed together
and this sample mixture is used for running a test engine.

The octane number of the fuel is the percentage of

octane in this sample mixture which detonates in similar
way as the fuel under the same condition.

High octane fuel’s number is 100. This type of fuel

will not have tendency to detonate. We can make given fuel
2.22 Thermal Engineering - I

into octane number 90 to 100 by adding tetra ethyl lead.

But this addition will reduce the engine life.
Fuels with a higher octane ratings are used in high
performance gasoline engines that require higher
compression ratio.

Fuels with lower octane number are ideal for diesel

engines, because diesel engines do not compress the fuel
but rather compress only air and then inject the fuel.

Two methods that are employed for measuring octane

number are Research Octane Number (RON) and Motor
Octane Number (MON).

The octane numbers measured under two different

engine conditions in a standard “Cooperative Fuels
Research (CFR)” engine has a variable compression ratio.

Research Octane Number (RON)

The most common type of octane rating is Research
Octane Number (RON). RON is determined by using the
fuel in a test engine running at 600 rpm with the variable
compression ratio under controlled condition, and
comparing the results with the mixture of iso-octane and
n-heptane.

Motor Octane Number

Motor Octane Number is determined at 900 rpm
engine speed instead of 600 rpm used in RON.

MON testing uses a similar test engine used in RON

testing but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine
speed and variable ignition timing.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.23

RON  MON
Anti-knock Index 
2

Advantages of High-Octane Fuel:

1. We can increase the compression ratio without
detonation.
2. Engine efficiency can be increased without
detonation.
3. Super charging can be done without detonation.
So totally, the unwanted detonation can be reduced.

2.4 ANTI-KNOCK ADDITIVES

Anti knock additives are used to reduce engine
knocking and to increase the fuel’s octane rating by raising
the temperature and pressure at which auto ignition occurs.

The widely used antiknock agents are:

 Tetraethyl lead [TEL] CH 3CH 24 Pb

 Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl

(MMT) CH 3C 5H 4MnCO3

 Ferrocene Fe C5H52

 Iron pentacarbonyl
 Toluene
 Iso octane
2.4.1 Anti-knock Agents
Anti-knock agents are classified into high-percentage
additives like alcohol and low-percentage additives based
on heavy elements.

Internal combustion engine discharges various

substances to the atmosphere. Some of these emissions are
2.24 Thermal Engineering - I

harmful to the environment such as Carbon monoxide,

Nitrogen oxides, unburnt hydrocarbons and certain
compounds of lead.
The catalytic converter is used to oxidize the unburnt
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and
to decompose nitrogen oxides into nitrogen and oxygen.

High percentage additives are those organic

compounds that do not contain metals, but require high
blending ratios, such as 20-30% for benzene and ethanol.
Ethanol is inexpensive, and widely available but being
corrosive in nature, it is not used.

Tetra ethyl lead (TEL) CH3CH 24 Pb is a main

additive and it is a common anti knock agent.

Adding a small amount of Tetra ethyl load (TEL)

improves the anti-knock quality of fuel.

2.4.2 Effects of Anti knock additives

 The main problem in using Tetra ehtyl lead is the
lead content in it since lead is extremely toxic and
poisonous.
 A manganese - carrying additive like
methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl
(MMT) directly affects the humans.
The exposure of MMT results in eye irritation,
giddiness, headache and it causes difficulties in breathing.

 Ferrocene Fe C 5H 22 is an organometallic

compound of iron. The iron contents in ferrocene
forms a conductive coating on the spark plug.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.25

2.4.3 Factors affecting Detonation and Remedies

Factors Remedies
1. The type of fuel used is Fuel like alcohol and
the reason for detonation benzol do not cause
detonation.
Addition of a small
quantity of tetraethyl lead
with petrol will suppress
the detonation. (This
process is called doping).
2. The position of spark plug Less distance reduces the
in the combustion chamber chances of detonation. A
determines the distance spark plug placed
the flame travels to reach centrally will reduce the
detonating zone. More detonation.
distance causes detonation
3. High temperature The cooling system should
combustion chamber raise be proper to maintain the
temperature of cylinder cylinder wall temperature
wall and also detonating optimum.
zone.
4. The compression ratio is The compression ratio
the cause for detonation. should not be increased
More compression ratio beyond the limit.
will overheat the engine.
5. The presence of carbon Good quality fuel should
deposits promote be used.
detonation.
2.26 Thermal Engineering - I

Factors Remedies
6. Excessive sparking Ignition system voltage
temperature promotes should be limited to
detonation produce spark with
sufficient temperature to
ignite.

2.5 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER IN SI ENGINE

1. Overhead valve (or) I - Head combustion chamber

In this type of combustion chamber, both the valves
are located on the cylinder head, so it is called over head
valve. This type of combustion chamber has two forms.

Bath-tub form
This type of combustion chamber, consists of oval
shaped chamber with both valves mounted overhead. The
spark plug is mounted at the side.

Wedge form
This type of combustion chambers also consist of oval
shaped chamber with both valves mounted overhead at its
side with slight inclination. The spark plug is mounted
centrally. A few features of this combustion chamber are
listed below:

S park front in let valve

p lu g (back exh aust
valve is hid den )

(a) Bath - tub form o f (b) Wed ge form o f

com bustio n chamb er Fig 2.8 com bustio n chamb er
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.27

1. Less heat loss because of less surface to volume

ratio.
2. Less flame travel length and greater freedom from
knock.
3. High volumetric efficiency from larger valve
cylinder.
4. By keeping the hot exhaust valve in the cylinder
head instead of cylinder block, it reflects in
confinement of thermal failure to cylinder head.
2. T - Head combustion chamber
In this type of
combustion chamber, two
valves are placed on
either side of the cylinder
which requires two Exhaust
Valve
camshafts. Fig. 2.9 (a) In T - H ead
Types
a manufacturing point of
Fig 2.9. (a)
view, providing two
camshafts is not recommended.
The distance across the
combustion chamber is very long so
the knocking tendency is high in
this type of engine.
L - He ad
3. L-head combustion chamber Types

In this L - head type two

valves are provided on the same
side of the cylinder which can be
operated by a single camshaft. In
this type, it is easy to lubricate the L - He ad
valve mechanism, with the Fig 2.9. (b )
Types
2.28 Thermal Engineering - I

detachable head provision. The cylinder head can be

removed without disturbing valves, gears etc.
In Fig. 2.9 (b) the air flow has to travel a longer
distance to enter the cylinder. This causes loss of velocity
head and loss in turbulence level. This design reduces
knocking tendency by reducing the flame travel length. This
chamber type gives additional turbulence during
compression stroke.
F - head combustion chamber
The F - head type, exhaust valve is in cylinder head
and the inlet valve is in cylinder block. In this type, the
valves are actuated by two camshafts which is a
disadvantage.

C ylinder he ad Sp ark p lu g
EV

IV
C ylinder block
R e cipro cating
Piston

Fig. 2.10 F-head com bu stion cham ber.

2.6 COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES

In CI engine, combustion occurs because of the high
temperature of the compressed air. Since the fuel is ignited
with the high temperature of compressed air, it is called
auto-ignition. For the auto ignition, compression ratio
should be maximum (about 12). It requires heavier
construction. So CI engines are heavier and bigger.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.29

The air is compressed and the fuel is injected with

high pressure in the form of fine spray near the end of the
compression. This leads to delay period. This is also called
ignition lag.

The fuel which is in atomized form is slightly colder

than the hot compressed air in the cylinder. An appreciable
time elapses before the actual combustion starts. This
elapsed time is called delay period or ignition lag.

Four stages of combustion in CI Engine.

1. Ignition delay period.

2. Period of rapid or uncontrolled combustion.
3. Period of controlled combustion.
4. After burning.

1. Ignition Delay period

A period in between the start of injection and start
of combustion is called delay period. [shown in Fig 2.11)
80

70
S tart of C om pre ssion
60
com bustio n p ressure
P (kg f / cm )
2

50 Inje ctio n
starts
40
0 .00 1se c
30
1 2 3
20 inje ctio n
10 A tm ospheric

1 20 1 00 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 TD C 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 00 1 20
Tim e , D eg ree s of C ra nksha ft ro tation ( )
Fig 2.11. Combustion in C.I Eng ines
2.30 Thermal Engineering - I

The fuel will not ignite immediately after the injection

of fuel into the combustion chamber. There is a definite
period of inactivity between the time when the fuel hits
the hot compressed air in the combustion chamber and the
time it starts burning.

The ignition delay period is also called the

preparatory phase during which some fuel already gets
admitted but not yet ignited.

If the delay period is more, more fuel will be injected

inside the cylinder and more will be the pressure rise. This
causes diesel knock.

Some delay period is needed to dispense and atomise

the fuel in the air for complete combustion. So we have to
keep the delay period as short as possible.

The delay period in the CI engine is a very great

incluencing factor on both engine design and performance.
It influences the following:

(i) The combustion rate

(ii) Knocking

(iii) Starting ability

(iv) The presence of smoke in the exhaust

This delay period is divided into physical delay period

and chemical delay period.

(i) Physical delay

The physical delay is the time period, in between the
beginning of injection and the starting of chemical reaction.
During the period, the fuel is atomized, vaporized, mixed
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.31

with air and its temperature is raised to its self ignition

temperature.
This physical delay normally depends on the type of
fuel i.e for light viscous fuel, the physical delay is less while
for heavy viscous fuels, the physical delay is more.
The physical delay can be greatly reduced by using
high injection pressure, high combustion chamber
temperature and high turbulence in order to break the jet
and improve evaporation.
(ii) Chemical delay
During the chemical delay period, reactions start
slowly and then gets accelerate till ignition takes place.
Generally, the chemical delay period is longer than the
physical delay period. It depends on the temperature of the
surrounding. At high temperature, the chemical reactions
are faster leading to less chemical delay. The ignition lag
in SI Engine is a similar phenomenon like the chemical
delay in CI Engine.
Factors Affecting Delay Period
1. Temperature and pressure in the combustion
chamber at the time of injection.
2. Air-fuel ratio.
3. Turbulence of air.
4. Presence of residual gases.
5. Rate of fuel injection.
6. The extent of atomization and vaporization and
fineness of fuel spray.
2.32 Thermal Engineering - I

2. Period of Rapid Combustion (or) Uncontrolled

Combustion
After delay period, this period starts. This period is
counted from the end of delay period to the point of
maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. In this stage,
the pressure rise is rapid. About one-third of heat is
released at this stage.

The rate of pressure raised in this stage depends on

1. the amount of fuel sprayed in the delay period.

2. the degree of turbulence.
3. fineness of fuel-spray.
3. Period of Controlled Combustion: This is the third
stage starting after rapid combustion period. The fuel
injected in the stage is burnt immediately and any further
pressure rise can be controlled by injection rate. The period
of controlled combustion is coming to an end at maximum
cycle temperature.

4. After Burning: The unburnt fuel particles will get

inflamed even after fuel injection is over. This is called
after burning. This after burning may continue in the
expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 of crank angle from TDC.

2.7 FACTORS THAT AFFECT DELAY PERIOD IN

DIESEL ENGINE
(i) Compression ratio

(ii) Intake temperature

(iii) Intake pressure

(iv) Engine size

 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.33

(v) Fuel temperature

(vi) Injection time

(vii) Output

1. Compression ratio
The increase in compression ratio reduces ignition lag.
Due to increased intensity of compressed air and the closer
contact of molecules, the time of action is reduced when
fuel is injected.

2. Intake temperature
Increase in intake temperature, increases the air
temperature after compression, resulting in reduced delay
period.

3. Intake pressure (super charging)

Increase in intake pressure reduces the auto ignition
temperature and hence reduces the delay period. The peak
pressure will be higher as the compression pressure
increases with intake pressure.

4. Engine size
The engine size has little effect on the delay period
in the order of milliseconds. Large engines operate at low
revolutions per minute because of inherent stress
limitations. The delay period in terms of crank angle is
smaller and hence less fuel enters the cylinder during this
period.

5. Fuel temperature
Increase in fuel temperature will reduce both physical
and chemical delay.
2.34 Thermal Engineering - I

2.7.1 Effect of variables on the Delay period

Effect on
Increase in
delay Reason
variable
period
Compression ratio Reduces Increases air
temperature and
pressure and reduces
auto ignition
temperature
Intake temperature Reduces Increases air
temperature
Injection pressure Reduces Reduces physical
delay due to greater
surface volume ratio
Cetane Number of Reduces Reduces the
fuel self-ignition
temperature.
Injection timing Reduces Reduced pressure
advance and temperature
when the injection
begins.
Fuel temperature Reduces Increase chemical
reaction due to
better vapourization.
Engine speed Reduces in Reduces loss of heat.
the order of
milliseconds
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.35

2.8 KNOCKING (OR) DIESEL KNOCK

If the delay period is prolonged, a large amount of
diesel will be injected in the chamber. Combustion of the
large amount of fuel may cause high pressure rise and this
high pressure rise cause knocking.
The methods to prevent knocking
1. By reducing the delay period by doping.
Note: Doping is the process of adding 1% ethyl
nitrate to accelerate the combustion and as a result,
we can reduce knocking.
2. By raising the compression ratio, we can raise the
temperature of air much higher than that required
for auto ignition of the fuel. By doing so, we can
reduce knocking.
Note: In petrol engine, detonation occurs if we
increase compression ratio. Here in CI engine, we
can prevent knocking by increasing compression
ratio.
3. By increasing the turbulence of the compressed air,
we can prevent knocking.
4. By adjusting the fuel injector so as to inject only a
small quantity of fuel in beginning.
5. By super charging, we can reduce knocking.
Note: Super charging is the process of increasing
the inlet pressure of air. But super charging will
increase the tendency of detonation in SI engine.
6. By increasing the injector pressure, we can atomize
the fuel efficiently to avoid knocking.
2.36 Thermal Engineering - I

2.8.1 The phenomenon of knock in CI engine

In CI engine, the injection of fuel takes place for a
definite interval of time.
(a) If the, ignition delay of fuel being injected is short,
the actual burning of first few droplets of fuel will
commence in relatively short time. After injection
only the small amount of fuel is accumulated in the
chamber. When the burning commences, the rate of
rise in pressure will exert a smooth force on the
piston. Fig. 2.12.
S ta rt of Injection of fuel
S tart of C o mb ustion

Inje ction of fu el Start

Inje ction o f fuel End

Total Injection Time
D e lay P eriod
TDC
P re ssure

Time
Fig. 2.12.

(b) As the ignition is further delayed, relatively large

amount of fuel gets accumulated inside the chamber.
Hence upon combustion, there is a rapid rise in rate
of pressure, which results in rough engine operation.
 (c)
P ressure P ressure

Sta rt of Injection o f fue l Sta rt of Injection o f fue l

knocking.
S tart of C o m bustio n S ta rt of C om bustio n
TDC TD C

Time
Time

Fig. 2.14.
Fig. 2.13.
Inje ction of fu el Start Injection o f fuel S tarts
D elay P eriod D elay P eriod

Total Inje ction Tim e Total Inje ction Tim e

Injection of fu el End Injection of fu el End

of fuel gets accumulated in chamber. Hence upon
combustion, the instantaneous rise in pressure takes
Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.37

If the ignition delay is quite longer, large amount

place, which results in vibration of engines called

2.38 Thermal Engineering - I

In CI engine, knocking occurs near the beginning of

combustion where in SI Engine, knocking occurs near the
end of combustion.

2.8.2 Comparison of knock on SI and CI Engines

Knocking is a phenomenon which may occur in any
type of engine when excess heat is generated. The amount
of heat generated to cause knocking may very depending
upon the engine. However, in CI and SI engine, knock
predominantly occurs due to auto ignition of the air-fuel
mixture. The Fig. 2.15 shows a graph which traces the
path of the knocking phenomenon. Although an auto
ignition leads to knocking of both CI and SI engines, a few
significant differences can be observed with in the
processes.

Time: In an SI engine, the auto ignition occurs near the

end of the combustion which leads to knocking. It is evident
from the graph that auto ignition starts only after the peak
Start of C om bustion
S tart of In jection
Start o f ign itio n

TD C

TD C
Pressu re

Pressu re

Time Time
S I Eng ine C I E ngine
Fig. 2.15.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.39

pressure in the SI engine. Hence, to avoid knocking, the

auto ignition of the end gas needs to be avoided. On the
contrary, in a CI engine an autoignition occurs before the
peak pressure, at the start of the combustion. Hence to
prevent the knock in a CI engine, autoignition before the
combustion needs to be eliminated.
Preignition: Since the air-fuel mixture is sent together for
the combustion process, preignition could play a major role
in the knocking of a spark-ignition engine. In a CI engine,
only compressed air is taken in and the fuel is injected
only before the Top dead centre. Thus there is no possibility
for a pre ignition in a compression-ignition engine.
Intensity of knock: A spark-ignition engine is more likely
to undergo a detonation process during a knock, when
compared to a compression ignition engine. This is due to
the explosive auto ignition of the homogeneous air-fuel
mixture in a SI engine, where as in a CI engine the
intensity of knock is less severe as the air-fuel mixture is
not homogeneous.
Pressure and other factors: A CI engine operates at
higher pressure limits when compared to an SI engine.
During a normal cycle in a CI engine, an audible noise is
always present. Due to operations at high pressures and
excess heat, the fuel is ignited even before the Top dead
centre. Hence when the audible noise prevails and causes
heavy vibrations in the engine, it is said that the engine
is knocking. Also the factors which prevent knock in a SI
engine may promote knocking in a CI engine. A few factors
which reduce knocking in both the engines have been given
below.
2.40 Thermal Engineering - I

2.8.3 Characteristics Tending to Reduce Detonation

S. SI CI
Characteristics
No. Engine Engine
1. Ignition temperature of fuel High Low
2. Ignition delay Long time Short time
3. Compression ratio Low High
4. Inlet temperature Low High
5. Inlet pressure Low High
6. Cylinder size Small Large
7. Combustion wall temperature Low High

2.9 NEED FOR AIR MOVEMENT IN DIESEL ENGINE

The performance of a diesel engine interms of power
and mileage can be greatly influenced by alternating the
motion of air within the cylinder. A proper mixture of the
compressed air and the injected fuel can lead to increased
efficiency during the combustion process. A well mixed air
fuel solution burns completely and minimizes the amount
of unburnt fuel, thereby reducing emission. The formation
of a proper mixture of air and fuel predominantly depends
upon the motion of air, which in turn depends upon the
geometry and configuration of the combustion chamber and
its various elements.

(i) Swirl: It is defined as the helical path traced by the

discharge of air about the axis of the cylinder. It assists in
the process of mixing the air with the injected fuel, thereby
affecting the combustion process significantly.

A simple initial angular momentum along the side of

the cylinder, when supplied to the discharge, causes the
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.41

swirl motion. It is generated during the intake process by

altering the intake port and intensifies during the
compression stroke based on the configuration of the
cylinder.
(ii) Suction swirl: The air from the inlet valve is sent
tangentially inside the cylinder. After subsequent
deflections from the walls, it assumes a helical path about
the axis of the cylinder. This is known as suction swirl.
The tangential motion of air can be provided by
 Partial masking of the inlet valve.
 Providing a lip in the port on one of the sides.
 Positioning the inlet port in the desired tangential
angle.
(iii) Compression swirl: The suction swirl is usually
intensified in the compression process. As the piston
approaches the Top dead centre, the swirling air is forced
into the piston bowl. For reduced diameters of the piston
bowl, the rotational force is magnified. Thin and deep bowls
usually have higher swirl rate.
(iv) Squish: The squish motion occurs within the small
gap or recess between the piston and the cylinder head as
the piston approaches TDC. The whole volume of air is
compressed into this small recess just before the combustion
stroke and this compression causes an inward radial
movement of air called squish by Ricardo. This recess is
usually created by either the crown on the piston or the
configuration of the cylinder head. The crown on the piston,
generally preferred as the cylinder head, is continuously
subjected to heat loss by the flow of coolant.
2.42 Thermal Engineering - I

(v) Turbulence: A local fluctuation in the flow field of

air often results in increased rate of momentum of the
particles, thereby resulting in a turbulent flow. A turbulent
motion of air vastly contributes to the dispersion and
mixing of the air and fuel. A turbulent flow of air has
higher rates of heat and mass transfer than a laminar flow
or a molecular diffusion process.
This instantaneous increase in momentum and heat
and mass transfer is an essential ingredient in the
satisfactory working of an internal combustion engine.

2.10 COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN FOR

COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
The combustion chamber characteristics have to be
such as

1. To avoid maximum cylinder pressure.

2. To avoid excessive pressure rise.
3. It is to be designed so that the fuel should be burnt
fully in the expansion stroke.

Types of combustion chamber

1. Open (or) Direct combustion chamber

2. Divided (or) Indirect combustion chamber

1. Open combustion chamber

The open combustion chamber is the simplest form of
chamber. It is suitable for only slow speed four-stroke cycle
engine. In the open chamber, the fuel is injected from the
space on top of the cylinder. The combustion space is
formed by the top of the piston and the cylinder head. It
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.43

is shaped to provide swirling action of the air when the

piston comes up on the compression.
This type of chamber requires a higher injection
pressure and a greater degree of fuel atomization than the
other combustion chamber, to obtain proper fuel mixing. To
equalize combustion in the combustion chamber, multiple
orifice type injector tip is used. In this kind of chamber
design, there is a possibility to attain ignition lag.

Open combustion chambers are further divided as

follows:
(a) Shallow depth chamber
In shallow depth chamber, the depth of cavity
provided is quite small. This chamber is used for large
engines which is running at low speed. In this type, the
squish produced is negligible, since the cavity diameter is
very large.

(b) Hemispherical chamber

The hemispherical chamber gives better performance,
since the depth to diameter ratio for a cylindrical chamber
can be varied to give any desired squish.

(c) Cylindrical chamber

In cylindrical chamber by varying the depth, squish
can also be varied. The swirl was produced by masking the
valve for nearly 180 circumference.

(d) Toroidal chamber

The toroidal chamber is designed to provide a
powerful squish along with the air movement. This will give
better utilisation of oxygen due to powerful squish and the
mask needed on inlet valve is small.
2.44 Thermal Engineering - I

Combustion Chambers for CI Engines

(a) Shallow Depth Cham ber (b) Hem ispherical Cham ber
Direct - In jection (DI) Combustio n Cham ber

( c ) Cylindrical Cham ber (d) Toro idal C ham ber

Open Com bustio n Cham bers
Fig.2.16.

Advantages of open combustion chamber

 Because the surface area to volume ratio is lower,
the loss of heat during compression is minimum.
This enhances better efficiency.
 No cold starting problem.
 Fine atomization is achieved because of multiple
hole nozzle.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.45

Disadvantages
 High pressure is required for fuel injection leading
to complex design of fuel injection pump.
 For small engines, it is necessary for accurate
metering of fuel by the injection system.

2. Divided combustion chamber type

In this type, the combustion chamber is divided into
two or more compartments. In between these divided
compartments, restrictions or throats are provided, which
are so small so that considerable pressure difference occurs
between them during the combustion process.

These chambers are further classified into

 Turbulent combustion chamber

 Pre combustion chamber
 Energy cell

(a) Turbulent combustion chamber

This chamber consists of a spherical-shaped chamber
separated from engine cylinder and located in cylinder
head. The air is passed into the chamber during
compression stroke, which produces a rotary motion to the
compressed air. Hence, the turbulence of the air is
increased. When the fuel is injected into the rotating air,
it is partially mixed and the combustion starts.

The pressure buildup in the chamber forces the

burning and unburnt air-fuel mixture to flow back into
main chamber thus, increasing the turbulence.

This causes considerable heat loss to the walls of the

chamber. It can be reduced by employing heat - insulated
2.46 Thermal Engineering - I

Sp herica l
Sh aped
C h am ber

Sp raying
N o zzle

R e ciprocating
Piston

Fig.2.1 7. Tu rbu len t C o m b us tion C ham ber

chamber. The heat loss in this chamber is greater than the

open combustion chamber.
(b) Pre combustion chamber
Pre-combustion chamber consists of anti chamber
which produces rotary motion to compressed air, which is
connected to main chamber through number of small holes.
This chamber is located at the cylinder head and is
connected to the engine cylinder by small holes.
During the compression stroke, piston forces the air
from the main cylinder to enter into the pre combustion
chamber. At this point, the fuel is injected into the
precombustion chamber and combustion begins. It results
in high pressure and the flaming fuel droplets along with
considerable quantity of air are forced through the small
holes into the main cylinder. The bulk of combustion where
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.47

about 80% of energy is released into the main combustion

chamber.
The pre combustion chamber has multi fuel capability.
The rate of pressure rise is low when compared to open
type chamber.

S p raying
N o zzle

P re c ha m b e r /
A n tich am b er

O rifice

R e cipro c ating
P iston

Fig.2.18. Precom bu stion C ham ber

(c) Energy-cell chamber

In this energy cell chamber, the clearance volume in
the cylinder head is divided in two parts, the main cylinder
and the energy cell. Energy cell is further sub-divided into
2.48 Thermal Engineering - I

two parts, major and minor chamber which are separated

from each other and from the main chamber by narrow
artifice.
During compression, pressure difference occurs
between the main chamber and energy cell due to the
restricted passage between them. During combustion, the
fuel is injected by pintle type nozzle, part of fuel passes
across the main chamber and enters the energy cell.
Combustion starts initially in main chamber, where the
temperature is higher but the rate of burning of air is low
due to the absence of air motion.
In the major and minor chamber of energy cell, fuel
is well mixed with air because of good turbulence resulting
in complete combustion. The design of energy cell is to
reduce ignition lag and to run hot.

M ain C om bu stion
C h am be r
M inor C ell
S p rayin g N ozzle

C ylind er
H e ad
M ajor C ell

R e cipro cating
P iston

Fig.2.19. Energy Cell

 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.49

Advantages of Indirect-injection combustion chamber

 No complex design is needed for fuel-injection pump
since the injection pressure required is very low.
 Direction of spraying is not very important.
 Higher engine speeds can be achieved since
burning is continuous in pre chamber.
Disadvantages
 Heater plugs are required, because of poor cold
starting performance.
 Specific fuel consumption is high as there is a loss
of pressure due to air motion through the duct
and heat loss due to large heat transfer area.
 The increase in temperature and pressure on the
part of the piston leads to cracking and distortion.
2.10.1 Open and Divided combustion chambers

Open combustion Divided combustion

chamber chamber
1. It requires multiple hole 1. It requires single hole
injection nozzles. injection nozzle.
2. It can consume good 2. It consumes poor ignition
ignition quality fuels. quality fuels.
3. Open combustion 3. Divided combustion
chamber is more efficient. chamber leads to pressure
loss and heat losses during
compression and expansion.
So this type is not efficient.
4. It requires high injection 4. It requires moderate
pressure. injection pressure.
5. Cylinder construction is 5. Cylinder construction is
simple and less cost. hard and more expensive.
2.50 Thermal Engineering - I

2.11 DIESEL FUEL REQUIREMENT : FOR

COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES

The fuel used in Compression Ignition (CI) engine is

diesel, which is a type of hydrocarbon.

Fuel for CI engines should have certain qualities to

be qualified as an ideal fuel for these engines. Diesel is
used as the fuel it CI Engine because it possesses the
quality that are desired for the CI engine.

Some of the desired characteristics of Diesel:

1. Knocking characteristics
In case of CI engine, the burning of fuel occurs due
to compression of air. It is desired that as soon as the fuel
is injected into the cylinder, it starts burning, but in
practical situations, this never happens immediately, there
is always a time lag between the injection and burning of
the fuel.

As the duration of ignition lag increases, more and

more amounts of fuel gets accumulated in the cylinder
head. When the fuel is burnt, large amount of energy is
released, which produces extremely high pressure inside the
engine. This causes the knocking sound in the engine. Thus
the engine should have short ignition lag so that the energy
is produced uniformly inside the engine and can avoid the
abnormal sound in engine.

The knocking capacity of the fuel is measured in

terms of cetane rating of the fuel. The fuel used in CI
engine should have high cetane number to avoid knocking
of engine.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.51

2. Volatility of the fuel

The fuel should be volatile in nature. Within the
operating temperature range in the cylinder head, it gets
converted into its gaseous state when mixed with
compressed air.

3. Starting characteristics of the fuel

For smooth starting of vehicle, the fuel should have
good volatility so that it mixes with the air uniformly and
it should have high cetane number so the ignition of fuel
will be fast.

4. Smoke produced by fuel and its odour

The exhaust gases produced from the fuel should not
have too much smoke and odour.

5. Viscosity of fuel
The fuel should have a low viscosity so it can easily
flow through the fuel system and it should not be frozen
at the lowest working temperature.

6. Corrosion and wear

The fuel used in CI Engine should not cause corrosion
to the components of the engine before (or) after
combustion.

7. Easy to handle
Large quantities of fuel for a CI engine have to be
transported and so it should be easy to handle and
transport.

The fuel should have high flash point and high fire
point to avoid the catching of fire during transport.
2.52 Thermal Engineering - I

2.11.1 Cetane Number (CN)

Cetane Number (diesel fuel) refers to the ease at
which diesel fuel ignites at a relatively low temperature.

Lower cetane number will result in cold starting

problems.

Higher cetane number results in faster ignition.

Diesel Index
The Diesel index indicates the ignition quality of the
fuel. It is found to correlate, approximately to the cetane
number of commercial fuels.

Diesel index and cetane number are usually about 50.

Lower value will result in smoky exhaust.

2.11.2 Fuel Rating for CI Engine

Cetane Number (applicable for CI engine)
Octane number is for rating Petrol.

Cetane number is for rating Diesel.

The cetane number is a number to rate diesel fuel’s

ability to auto ignite quickly when it is injected into the
high pressure, high temperature air in the cylinder.

Higher the cetane number, lesser is the ‘Diesel

knocking’ tendency.

Procedure for finding Cetane Number

 Cetane C 10 H34  has high ignitabilty.

 methyl-napthalene C 11 H10  has low ignitability.

 Both are mixed together and this sample mixture

is used for running a test engine.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.53

The cetane number of the diesel is the percentage of

cetane in this sample mixture which knocks in a similar
way as the diesel under the same condition.
 Lower cetane number, higher are the hydrocarbon
emission in the exhaust gases.
 Lower cetane number, higher are the noise level.
 Lower cetane number, increases the ignition delay.
Note: Generally, fuel having higher octane number means
it has low cetane value.
 Chapter - 3

Testing and Performance of Engines

Indicator diagram and properties - Pressure Transducer-
Brake power measurements. Dynamometers - Performance
calculations -Morse test - Air consumption - Fuel consumption
Exhaust gas compositon - Heat balance sheet.

3.1 PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS (OR)

PERFORMANCE TEST ON I.C. ENGINES
IC Engines can be tested for their performance.
During this test, we can find out the following quantities.
1. Indicated power, 2. Indicated Mean Effective
Pressure (MEP), 3. Brake power, 4. Mechanical efficiency,
5. Indicated thermal efficiency, 6. Brake thermal efficiency,
7. Relative efficiency (or) Efficiency ratio, 8. Volumetric
efficiency, 9. Air consumption, 10. Fuel consumption,
11. Heat balance sheet.
1. Indicator Diagram
An indicator diagram is a P-V diagram traced by the
indicator which is attached to the piston. The P-V diagram
represents the work done by
the engine in one cycle. P
a = A rea re pre se n tin g
d
w o rkd on e in on e cy cle
The power developed 1 E q uiva le nt
re ctan gle
inside the engine cylinder is o f a rea = a d

known as indicated power.

This is measured by indicator
diagram.
2
V
Fig. 3.1
3.2 Thermal Engineering - I

We can measure ad (area of indicator diagram) by

using planimeter. Now we can draw an equivalent rectangle
whose area is equal to the area of indicator diagram. And
the height of this rectangle gives the Mean effective
pressure Pm.

2. Indicated Power (IP)

P m A LN or N /2  n
IP  kW
60

where P m  Mean effective pressure in kN/m 2 or K Pa

A  Area of piston in m 2

L  Length of stroke in m

N  Speed of the engine in r.p.m.

. .
N for 2 stroke engine [ . In two stroke engine, the
cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or in one
revolution of the crankshaft.]

. .
N/2 for 4 stroke engine [ . In four stroke engine,
the cycle is completed in 4 strokes of the piston (or) in two
revolutions of the crankshaft.]

and n or k No. of cylinders in the engine.

3. Mean Effective Pressure Pm

The mean effective pressure ‘P m’ can be calculated
from the following formula.

ad
Pm  S
ld
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.3

where ad  Area of indicator diagram (or) rectangle in

m 2.

ld  length of the diagram in m.

S  Spring constant (or) Spring number used in

engine indicator - unit in N/m 2/m or bar/m.

MEASUREMENT OF CYLINDER PRESSURE

Cylinder pressures can be easily obtained using
several analytical equations relating to the temperature and
the volume of the working fluid. Indicator diagrams are one
of the most common tools needed to compute the pressure
of a cycle. However, several electronic and mechanical
components are being used to verify the pressure at each
stage manually.

A typical pressure measuring component consists of

the following:

 A pick-up transducer
 Amplifier
 Recorder
 Display unit
TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device capable of converting one
form of energy into another. A pressure transducer typically
converts the pressure exerted on an object into noticeable
output like displacement, electrical signals etc. Since the
cylinder of an engine is subjected to various thermal and
shear stresses, the pressure transducer must be capable of
withstanding all the stresses. Most transducers are likely
to fail when subjected to the enormous heat and forces from
3.4 Thermal Engineering - I

an engine. One of the main challenges in measuring a

cylinder pressure is to identify the transducer which is
capable of working accurately under such conditions.
A piezo electric transducer is a device which can
withstand the energy from an engine, and also determine
the pressure more accurately. It works on the principle of
piezo electric effect by which certain materials can generate
an electric charge in response to an applied mechanical
stress.
It consists of a piezo electric crystal resting upon a
diaphragm. The ends of the crystal are connected to an
electronic device. The external pressure which is to be
measured is received by the diaphragm which transfers it
to the crystal. Due to applied mechanical stress, the crystal
gives out amperage which can be measured using the
electronic device. The amount of current flowing through
the circuit is directly proportional to the applied mechanical
stress.

Pressu re

O utput C rystal
+ + +
O utput D ia phra gm
  

Externa l Pre ssure

Pressu re
(a) Piezoe le ctric effect (b) Piezoe le ctric pressure tra nsducer
Fig. 3.2 Piezoelectric transd ucer

Since the electrical output from the crystal is small,

an amplifier is used to scale up the signals appropriately.
Then comes the recorder circuit which records the variation
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.5

in pressure over time. The main drawback in this system

is to calibrate the output according to the varying pressure.
Strain gauges are also nearly effective in determining the
pressure. However, due to several inertia forces acting on
it, the usage of strain gauges is not preferred.
Now that the pressure has been noted and the output
is usually displayed through a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO). Since, CRO provides an inertia free recording and
the electrical signals can be directly used to manipulate the
beams, a CRO can accurately display the variation of

80
C ylind e r Pre ssu re ( B a r )

60

40

20
TD C BDC

0 2 00 3 60 
(a) C ra nk a ng le (  )

4
C ylin d e r P res sure ( B a r )

1 TDC BDC

300 500 700

(b)
C ran k a n g le (  )
F ig . 3 .3 A Typical P- d iagram
3.6 Thermal Engineering - I

pressure with respect to time and with respect to the crank

angle. Typical CRO unit consists of an input from the
transducer and another set of inputs from the time
recording device and the crank angle measuring device. The
outputs are plotted in the form of a graph with pressure
along the y-axis and crank angle along the x-axis.
5. Brake Power (BP)
The power available at the crankshaft of the engine
is known as brake power. The brake power is measured by
some brake mechanism, hence the name brake power.
6. Different Arrangements used to find Brake Power
(i) Rope brake arrangement
(ii) Prony brake arrangement
(iii) Band brake arrangement.
(i) Rope Brake Arrangement
The rope makes one complete turn
around the flywheel keyed to the Sp rin g ba la nce

crankshaft of the engine. One end of the

rope carries a dead load and the other
end is connected to spring balance. Here
the flywheel is rotating clockwise and
the pull of the dead load makes
RO PE BR AKE
anticlockwise torque. A rra n g e m en t

The engine is started with no load.

Fig 3.4
Then gradually load is increased by
adding weights in the dead load hanger.
At any steady condition,
The effective radius R at which the net resisting force
is acting
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.7

Dd
R m
2

Resisting torque acting on the brake wheel is given by

T  W  S  R in kNm

2 NT
Brake Power  in kW
60

2N  D  d 
B.P   W  S   in k W
60  2 
where W  Dead load in kN S

S  Spring balance reading in kN

R
D  Dia. of Brake drum in m

d  Dia. of rope in m
Fig. 3.5
N  Speed of the engine in rpm. W

(ii) Prony Brake Arrangement

It consists of brake shoes which touch on the rim of

the brake wheel by means of bolts, nuts and springs. The
N ut
Loa d lever
Brake shoe
Spring

Brake
drum
W

Fig. 3.6 L
3.8 Thermal Engineering - I

pressure on the rim can be varied by adjusting the nut in

the arrangement.
When the brake drum is rotating in anticlockwise
direction, the dead load produce clockwise torque.
So the resisting torque (clockwise) ‘T’  W  L

where W  Weight on load carrier in kN.

L  Distance from the centre of the brake drum to

the point of load in m.

2NT
Brake Power B.P  in kW
60

2NW L
B.P  in kW
60

(iii) Bank Brake Arrangements

A flat belt is put around the rim of the S
S p rin g
b alan ce
brake wheel. The two ends of the flat belt is
attached with W 1 and W 2. Another belt is
B e lt
integrated with the flat belt and its other end
w2
is connected to the spring balance. B a nd b rake w1
Fig.3.7
Now the resisting torque ‘T’ is given
below.
T  [ W 1  S  W 2 ]  R

where W 1  Wt. on right side load carrier in kN

W 2  Wt. on left side load carrier in kN

S  Spring balance reading in kN

R  Effective radius of the brake drum in m.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.9

2NT
Brake Power  B.P  in k W
60

2N
B.P  [ [ W 1  S ]  W 2]  R in kW
60

7. Friction Power (FP)

The Power available in the engine flywheel
(crankshaft end) is less than the power developed inside
the engine. i.e. The BP is less than the IP. Because, there
is a loss of power due to friction between the moving parts.
The Power lost in this way is known as friction power.

So, F.P  I.P  B.P

The difference between the indicated power and brake

power is known as friction power.

8. Specific Fuel Consumption (S.F.C) in kg/kW hr

It is defined as the amount of fuel consumed per unit
of power developed per hour.

mf
The ratio is known as specific fuel
B.P or I.P

consumption per kW per hour. [Here m f  mass of fuel
consumed in kg/hr.]

mf
BSFC  kg/kW  hr
B.P

mf
ISFC  kg/kWhr
I.P

where, BSFC - Brake Spepcific fuel consumption.

ISFC - Indicated Specific fuel consumption)
3.10 Thermal Engineering - I

9. Mechanical Efficiency mech 

Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
power available at the engine crankshaft and power
developed inside the engine cylinder.

Brake Power
Mechanical Efficiency, mech 
Indicated Power

10. Thermal Efficiency

The ratio of B.P (or) I.P to the energy supplied by fuel
during the same interval of time is known as thermal
efficiency.

If it is based on I.P, then it is known as Indicated

thermal efficiency.

If it is based on B.P, then it is known as Brake

thermal efficiency.

11. Indicated Thermal Efficiency indicated

I.P in kW  3600
 indicated  
mf  C.V.

where C.V  Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg


m f  Mass of fuel in kg/hr

If C.V is given in kJ/m 3, then

I.P in kW  3600
 indicated thermal  
V f  C.V.


where Vf  Volume of gas fuel supplied in m 3/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.11

12. Brake Thermal Efficiency Brake 

B.P in kW  3600
Brake  
mf  C.V.

where C.V in kJ/kg.

B .P in kW  3600
If C.V is in kJ /m 3, then  Brake  
V f  C.V.

 Brake   indicated  mech

Brake thermal efficiency is also known as overall

efficiency.

i.e.,  Brake   overall

12. Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio

The ratio of the indicated thermal efficiency or the
brake thermal efficiency to the air standard efficiency is
known as relative efficiency or efficiency ratio.

Relative efficiency,

Indicated o r Brake thermal efficiency

 relative 
Air standard efficiency

14. Volumetric Efficiency volumetric

The ratio of the actual volume of the charge admitted
into the cylinder to the swept volume of the piston is known
as volumetric efficiency.

Volume of charge admitted at NTP condition

volumetric 
Sw ept vo lume

NTP = Normal temperature 0C and pressure

(1.01325 bar) condition.
3.12 Thermal Engineering - I

3.2 DYNAMOMETER
Dynamometer is used to measure the brake power.

The brake power is measured by coupling the brake

dynamometer to the engine shaft.

Let W  Load measured in the dynamometer in N

R  Arm length in m

Resisting torque  T  WR in N-m

2NT
Brake Power  in kW
60  1000

2NWR
 in kW
60  1000

In the hydraulic dynamometer, the arm length R is

fixed. So the factor 2R/60  1000  is constant and is
known as reciprocal of dynamometer constant.

WN
So, B.P 
K

 60  1000 
where K  Dynamometer constant   
 2R 
Dynamometer can be classified into two types

(i) Absorption dynamometers

(ii) transmission dynamometer

(i) Absorption dynamometer

These types of dynamometers are used to measure

and absorb the power output of the engine to which they
are coupled. The power absorbed is usually released as heat
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.13

(or) by other forms of energy. Eg., Hydraulic, Eddy current

dynamometer etc.
(ii) Transmission Dynamometer

Transmission dynamometer is also called as Torque

meter. The purpose of these meters is to simply sense the
torque. It doesnt supply (or) receive any energy. Torque
meters employ normal measuring units like a strain gauge
to directly determine the torque acting on a shaft. Usually,
more strain gauges are fixed on a rotating shaft and the
angular strain of the shaft obtained from the gauges is
directly proportional to the torque acting on the shaft.
These dynamometers have high accuracy, and are often
employed in automatic units.

Absorption Dynamometers
3.2.1 Hydraulic Dynamometer
The water brake is of hydraulic nature and it is the
simplest example for hydraulic dynamometer. Generally the
water brake is used for large capacity systems as compared
to prony brake system, because large amount of heat is
dissipated to the water in water brake system.

 This device uses fluid friction and not dry friction.

Description
The main parts of this system are shown in Fig. 3.8

 A rotating disk is fixed to the driving shaft.

Semi-elliptical grooves are provided on the disc
through which a stream of water flows.
 A casing is stationary in which the disc rotates.
 The casing is mounted on anti-friction bearings
and it carries a braking arm and a balance
3.14 Thermal Engineering - I

C ham be r

D isc
W ater in

A ntifriction
B earin gs

D rivin g sha ft

W ater

W ater ou t C asin g

Fig : 3.8 Water Brake or Hydraulic Dyn am om eter

system. Therefore, the casing can rotate freely, but

its movement can be restricted by the arm.

Operation
 When the driving shaft rotates, water flows in a helical
path in the chamber. Due to vortices and eddy-currents
setup in the water, the casing tends to rotate in the
same direction as that of the driving shaft.
 By varying the amount of water and its pressure, the
braking action can be initiated. Braking can also be
provided by varying the distance between the rotating
disk and the casing.
 The heat developed due to the power is cooled by the
continuous supply of working fluid.
 Power absorption is approximately the cube of rotational
speed and the fifth power of disc diameter
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.15

 The housing is constrained by a force-measuring load

cell placed at the end of the arm of radius r.
Torque T  F  r

where F  force m easured at radius r

2  NT
Power P 
60

3.2.2 Eddy Current Dynamometer

It is an absorption type dynamometer. It works on
the basis of Faraday’s Laws of induction, by which loops of
opposing currents are induced in a conductor under a
changing magnetic field.

B e aring

S tato r

E n co d er
M otor
R o tor
R o tatin g
m em b er
W a tt m e te r

L oa d c e ll

Fig. 3.9 Ed dy C urre nt dy nam om eter

The arrangement consists of a stator, made up of

electromagnets and a rotor coupled to the shaft of the
engine. The rotor is made of copper or steel or other
conducting materials. When the rotor rotates, Eddy
currents are induced in the stator. This current acts in the
opposite direction, thereby intending to stop the change in
the magnetic flux. Due to this opposing force, a torque acts
on the shaft, thereby loading the engine. This load is
measured using a moment arm. As the eddy currents
3.16 Thermal Engineering - I

produce a significant amount of heat, the system requires

a cooling arrangement for the purpose of heat dissipation.
Performance Curves
The following are the performance curves.
1. B.P. vs speed
2. I P vs speed
3. SFC vs speed
4. Mechanical efficiency vs speed

80
70 0 .5
60
50 0 .4
BP
IP

B ra ke S FC

40 0 .3
B P & IP

30
20 0 .2
M ax
10 0 .1
P ow er
5 00 1 50 0 2 50 0 3 50 0
5 001 50 0 2 50 0 3 50 0 S pee d (rpm )
S pee d (rpm )
(a) BP & IP Vs Speed Cu rves (b) Brake SFC Vs Speed
Fig 3.10
M echa n ic a l
E ffic ien cy

Bra ke T he rm al E fficie ncy

40
35
90 30
al
rm

80 25
he
Bt

70 20
60 15
10
50
5
40
5 00 1 50 0 2 50 0 3 50 0
5 00 1 50 0 2 50 0
S pe e d (rpm ) S pee d (rpm )
(d)
(c) m ec h V s S p ee d B ra ke T herm al E fficien cy V s S p ee d
Fig 3.11
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.17

5. Brake Thermal efficiency vs speed

The sample curves for the above are shown here in
the Fig 3.10 and 3.11
PROBLEMS ON PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
OF IC ENGINES
Problem 3.1: During test on single cylinder oil engine,
working on the four stroke cycle fitted with a rope brake, the
following readings are taken.
Effective diameter of Brake wheel = 600 mm. Dead load on
brake = 200 N; spring balance reading = 30 N; speed = 450
r.p.m; Area of indicator diagram  400 mm2; length of indicator
diagram = 60 mm; spring scale = 1.1 bar per mm. Bore = 100
mm; stroke = 150 mm; Quantity of oil = 0.815 kg/hr. Calorific
value of oil = 42000 kJ/kg. Calculate the brake power,
indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake thermal efficiency
and brake specific fuel consumption and Indicated thermal
efficiency.

Solution:
600
Given: Effective Radius R   300 mm  0.3 m
2

(Dead load)W  200 N, S  30 N, N  450 r.p.m.

ad  400 mm 2, ld  60 mm , s  1.1 bar/mm,
Bore dia. D  100 mm  0.1 m, L  150 mm  0.15 m,

Mass of fuel m f  0.815 kg/hr, C.V  42,000 kJ/kg.

Brake power (BP)

2NW  S  R
B.P 
60
3.18 Thermal Engineering - I

2  450  200  30   0.3


60

B.P  2403.32 W  2.403 kW

Indicated Power (IP)

Before that, we have to find mean effective pressure
P m

ad  s 400
Pm    1.1  7.333 bar
ld 60

P m  7.333  10 2KPa

 
Area of cylinder A   D2   0.1 2
4 4

A  7.854  10  3m 2

P m AL N /2  n
Indicated Power I.P 
60
. .
[ . N/2 for 4 stroke engine]
7.333  10 2  7.854  10  3  0.15  450/2  1
I.P. 
. 60
.
[ . n  1 for single cylinder]
 3.2396 kW

Mechanical Efficiency mech 

B.P 2.403
 mech  
I.P 3.2396

 0.74175

 74.175 %
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.19

Brake Thermal Efficiency

B.P.  3600
 Brake  
m f  C.V

2.403  3600
  0.25273
0.815  42,000

 25.273 %

Indicated Thermal Efficiency

I.P  3600
 indicated  
m f  C.V

3.2396  3600
  0.3407
0.815  42,000

 34.07 %

Brake specific fuel consumption SFCBrake


mf
S FCBrake 
B.P.

0.815 kg

2.403 kWhr

kg
 0.3392
kWhr

Problem 3.2: A Four stroke four cylinder gasoline engine has

a bore of 60 mm and a stroke of 100 mm. On test, it develops
a torque of 66.5 Nm when running at 3000 rpm. If the
clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc, the relative
efficiency with respect to break thermal efficiency is 0.5 and
calorific value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg, determine the fuel
consumption in kg/h and the break mean effective pressure.
(JNTU - Jan/Feb - 2015)
3.20 Thermal Engineering - I

Given data: 4 stroke; 4 cylinder; D  0.06 m ;

L  0.1 m ; T  66.5 Nm ; N  3000 rpm
V c  60 cm 3  60  10  6 m 3 ; relative  0.5 ;

CV  42  10 3 kJ/kg

Solution:
Com pression ratio  Air std   Brake thermal 

BP  mf  Pmbrake

To find r
 
Vs   D 2  L   0.06 2  0.1  2.83  10  4 m 3
4 4

V s  V c 2.83  10  4  60  10  6
r   5.712
Vc 60  10  6

1
Air standard efficiency  1 
r  1

1
1  0.5
5.7120.4

[Since it is gasoline engine, it is considered as petrol

engine. So otto cycle  ]
Brake therm al efficency
Relative efficiency 
Air standard efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency  0.5  0.5  0.25

2  NT 2   3000  66.5
Brake power BP    20891.6 watts
60 60

 20.892 kW
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.21


To find fuel consumption mf
B.P  3600
We know, brake thermal efficiency  
m f  Cv

 20.892  3600
mf 
0.25  42  10 3

 7.16 kg /hr

To find brake mean effective pressure Pmbrake

B.P  60
P m brake 
N
LA   n
 2 
N
[ for 4 stroke; n  4 for 4 cylinder]
2
20.892  60

  3000 
0.1   0.062   4
4  2 
 738.9 kPa  7.4 ba r

3.3 MEASUREMENT OF INDICATED POWER OF

MULTICYLINDER ENGINE
MORSE TEST
This method is used to measure the indicated power
without the use of indicator diagram in multicylinder
engines. The brake power of the engine is measured by
cutting off each cylinder in turn. The cylinder of a petrol
engine is cut off by shorting the spark plug and in case of
diesel engine, this is done by cutting off the diesel supply
to the required cylinder.

For example, consider a 4 cylinder engine. First of

all, measure the brake power of the engine when all the
3.22 Thermal Engineering - I

cylinders are in operation. Then cylinder 1 is cut-off so that

it does not develop any power. The speed of the engine
decreases. In order to attain the initial speed back, the load
on the engine is reduced. Now, the brake power is
measured with this new condition which gives the brake
power of the remaining three cylinders.
Similar way, we can cut-off each cylinder one by one
and measure the brake power of the remaining three
cylinders by maintaining the engine speed as original
speed.

Let I1, I2, I3 and I4  Indicated power of cylinder 1, 2,

3 and 4 respectively.

F 1, F 2, F 3 and F 4  Frictional power of cylinder 1, 2, 4

and 4 respectively.

When all the cylinders are in operation the total

brake power B.P. simply B is given as follows.

B  Total indicated po wer  Total Friction P ower ... (1)

B  I1  I2  I3  I4  F 1  F 2  F3  F 4

when cylinder 1 is cut off, I1  0, but the frictional

losses of the cylinder 1 remain the same

 Brake power of the remaining three cylinders  B 1

B 1  0  I2  I3  I4  F 1  F 2  F3  F 4 ...(2)

Subtracting the equation (2) from equation (1), we get

B  B 1  I1 (or)
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.23

Indicated power of the first cylinder, I1

I1  B  B 1

Similarly, I.P. of 2nd cylinder I2

I2  B  B 2

IP of 3rd cylinder, I3

I3  B  B 3

I.P. of 4th cylinder, I4

I4  B  B 4

and the total indicated power IP  I1  I2  I3  I4

Problem 3.3: In a test with a four cylinder, four stroke petrol

engine, the following results were found:
B.P with all cylinders working = 24.25 kW
B.P with cylinder No:1 cut off = 16.53 kW
B.P with cylinder No:2 cut off = 17.2 kW
B.P with cylinder No:3 cut off = 17.34 kW
B.P with cylinder No:4 cut off = 17.8 kW
Estimate the indicated power of the engine and its mechanical
efficiency

Solution:
Given B.P. or simply B = 24.25 kW, B 1  16.53 kW;
B 2  17.2 kW ; B 3  17.34 kW; B 4  17.8 kW

I1  B  B 1  24.25  16.53  7.72 kW

I2  B  B 2  24.25  17.2  7.05 kW

I3  B  B 3  24.25  17.34  6.91 kW

3.24 Thermal Engineering - I

I4  B  B 4  24.25  17.8 6.45 kW

Total Indicated Power IP  I1  I2  I3  I4

 7.72  7.05  6.91  6.45

 28.13 kW

B.P
Mechanical efficiency  mech 
I.P

24.25
  0.8621
28.13

 86.21 %

Problem 3.4: During a brake on a four cylinder, four stroke

engine coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer at constant speed,
the following readings were obtained.
B.P. with all cylinders working = 14.7 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.1. cut off = 10.14 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.2. cut off = 10.3 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.3. cut off = 10.36 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.4. cut off = 10.21 kW
Petrol consumption = 5.5 kg/hr
Calorific value of petrol = 44,000 kJ/Kg
Dia of cylinder  8cm
Stroke of piston  10 cm
Clearance volume 0.1 litre
Calculate (1) Mechanical efficiency (ii) Relative efficiency on the
basis of IP.

Solution:
Given: B.P (or) simply B = 14.7 kW; B 1  10.14; B 2  10.3;

B 3  10.36 ; B 4  10.21 ; m f  5.5 kg/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.25

C.V = 42,000 kJ/Kg; D = 0.08 m; L = 0.1 m

V c  Clearance volume  0.1 litre  0.1  10  3 m 3

. . 1
[ . 1000 lit  1 m 3; So 1 lit  m 3]
1000

I1  B  B 1  14.7  10.14  4.56 kW

I2  B  B 2  14.7  10.3  4.4 kW

I3  B  B 3  14.7  10.36  4.34 kW

I4  B  B 4  14.7  10.21  4.49 kW

Total I.P.  I1  I2  I3  I4  4.56  4.4  4.34  4.49

 17.79 kW

B.P. 14.7
1. Mechanical efficiency: mech  
I.P 17.79

 0.8263  82.63%

Indicated thermal efficiency: indicated

I.P.  3600
 indicated  
m f  C.V

17.79  3600
  0.27724
5.5.  42,000

 27.725 %

Air Standard efficiency: Air standard

1
 air stand ard  1 
1
r

[Since it is a petrol engine the otto cycle efficiency is used]

3.26 Thermal Engineering - I

Vs  V c
where r  compression ratio
Vc

where Vs  Swept volum e an d V c  Clearance volume

 
Vs   D2  L   0.08 2  0.1  5.027  10  4 m 3
4 4

V c  0.1  10  3 m 3 given 

V s  Vc 5.027  10  4  0.1  10  3
So, r  
Vc 0.1  10  3

 6.027

1
 air standard  1   0.51252
6.0271.4  1

 51.252 %

Relative efficie ncy 

or   indicated 0.27724
   0.541
Efficiency ratio 0.51252
 air standard
on the ba sis of IP 

 Relative  54.1%

Problem 3.5: A four stroke petrol engine 8 cm bore and 10

cm stroke is tested at full throttle at constant speed. The fuel
supply is fixed at 0.065 kg per minute and the spark plugs of
four cylinders are successively short circuited without change
of speed. load being adjusted accordingly. The Brake powers
are measured and given below.
With all cylinders working = 12 kW
With cylinder No:1 Short circuited (not firing) = 8.46 kW
With cylinder No:2 Short circuited = 8.56 kW
With cylinder No:3 Short circuited = 8.6 kW
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.27

With cylinder No:4 Short circuited = 8.5 kW

Determine the indicated power of the engine under these
condition. Determine the indicated thermal efficiency if the
calorific value of the fuel in 43500 kJ/kg. Find the relative
efficiency, if the clearance volume of one cylinder being
70 cm3

Solution:
Total B.P. with all cylinders firing = B = 12 kW

I1  B  B 1  12  8.46  3.54 kW

I2  B  B 2  12  8.56  3.44 kW

I3  B  B 3  12  8.6  3.4 kW

I4  B  B 4  12  8.5  3.5 kW

Total IP  I1  I2  I3  I4  3.54  3.44  3.4  3.5

 13. 88 kW

I.P  3600
Indicated thermal efficie ncy  
m f  C.V

m f  0.065  kg/min  0.065  60  3.9 kg /hr

13.88  3600
indicated   0.29454
3.9  43500

 29.454%

Air standard efficiency : air standard


Swept volume V s   D 2  L for on e cylinder
4


  0.08 2  0.1  5.0265  10  4m 3
4
3.28 Thermal Engineering - I

Clearance volume V c  69.5 c m3  69.5  10  6 m 3

V s  V c 5.0265  10  4  69.5  10  6
compression ra tio  r  
Vc 69.5  10  6

 8.2324

1
 air standard  1 
1
r

[Otto cycle efficiency formula is used since it is a

petrol engine]

1
1  0.56968
8.2324 1.4  1

 56.97%

indicated
Relative efficie ncy on the basis of IP 
air standard

0.29454
  0.51702
0.56968

 51.702 %

Problem 3.6: In a test of four cylinders four stroke petrol

engine of 75 mm bore and 100 mm stroke, the following results
were obtained at full throttle at a constant speed and with a
fixed fuel supply of 0.082 kg/min
BP with all cylinder working  15.24 kW
BP with cylinder number 1 cut off  10.45 kW
BP with cylinder number 2 cut off  10.38 kW
BP with cylinder number 3 cut off  10.23 kW
BP with cylinder number 4 cut off  10.45 kW
Estimate the Indicated power of the engine under this
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.29

condition. If the calorific value of the fuel is 44,000 kJ/kg,

find the Indicated thermal efficiency of the engine. Compare
this with the air standard efficiency. The clearance volume of
one cylinder being 115 cc, (JNTU - Jan/Feb - 2015 - Set 2)

Solution:
Given data:
B  15.24 kW ; B 1  10.45 kW ;
B 2  10.38 kW B 3  10.23 kW ; B 4  10.45 kW

To find the Indicated Power (IP)  I1  I2  I3  I4

I1  B  B 1  15.24  10.45  4.79 kW

I2  B  B 2  15.24  10.38  4.86 kW

I3  B  B 3  15.24  10.23  5.01 kW

I4  B  B 4  15.24  10.45  4.79 kW

IP (Indicated Power)  I1  I2  I3  I4

 4.79  4.86  5.01  4.79

 19.45 kW

Calorific value of fuel  44000 kJ/kg

Dia of Bore  75 mm  0.075 m

Stroke length 100 mm  0.1 m

I.P  3600
(i) Indicated thermal efficiency  
m f  C.V

m f  0.082 kg/min  0.082  60

 4.92 kg/hr
3.30 Thermal Engineering - I

19.45  3600
Indicated   0.32345
4.92  44000

 32.345%

Air standard efficiency: air standard


Swept volume V s   D 2  L for one cylinder
4


  0.075 2  0.1
4

V s  4.4178  10  4 m3

V c  115 cm 3  115  10  6 m 3

Vs  Vc 4.4178  10  4  115  10  6
Compression ratio  r  
Vc 115  10  6

 4.8415

[Otto cycle efficiency formula is used since it is a petrol

engine]

1
 air standard  1 
1
r
1
1  0.4679
4.8415 1.4  1
 46.79%
ind icated
Relative efficiency on the basis of IP 
air standatd

0.32345
  0.6912
0.4679

 69.12%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.31

3.4 MEASUREMENT OF AIR CONSUMPTION

Orifice chamber method is used in laboratory for
measuring the consumption of air. The arrangement of this
system is shown in Fig. 3.12.
It consists of an air tight chamber in which a sharp
edged orifice is fitted. The orifice is situated away from the
suction connection of the engine. A rubber diaphragm is
provided to further reduce the pressure pulsations. There
is a pressure depression due to the suction of the engine
which causes the flow through the orifice for obtaining a
steady flow. The volume of the chamber should be
sufficiently large as compared with the swept volume of the
cylinder. Generally 500 to 600 times the swept volume. The
pressure difference which causes the flow through the
orifice is measured with the help of manometer fitted in
the airbox. The pressure difference is kept to 10 cm of
water to make the compressibility effect negligible.

Let A  Are a of orifice in m 2

hw  Head of water in m
d  D iameter of orifice in m

w  Density of water kg/m 3

a  Density of air in kg/m 3

C d  Coefficient of discharge of orifice
M ea su re m e nt of A ir C o nsum p tion
Head in terms of air in m is th rou gh the orifice cha m b er m eth od
given by
w . .
H  hw ;  . H  a  h w w 
a  
3.32 Thermal Engineering - I

The velocity of air passing through the orifice is given by

V  
2 g H m/s

 The volume of air passing through the orifice is given

by V a  A  V  C d  C d  A  


2gH

Mass of air passing through the orifice is given by,



m a  V a  a kg/sec

The density of atmospheric air is given by

Pa Va  m a R a Ta

ma Pa Pa
a   
Va Ra Ta 287  T a

The volumetric efficiency of the engine is given by

Actual volum e of air tak en in m 3/sec

Vol. 
D isplacement volume in m 3/sec

Cd  A  

2gH
 2
D  N 
L or N  2   No . of cylinders
4  60 
when the volumetric analysis of the exhaust gas is known,
then the mass of air supplied per kg of fuel is given by

NC
m a/kg of fuel 
33 C 1  C 2

where N  Percentage of nitrogen by volume in exhaust gas

C  Pe rcen tage of carbon in fuel by weigh t

C 1  Percentage of CO 2 by volume in exhaust gas
C 2  Percentage of CO by volum e in exhaust gas
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.33

PROBLEM IN MEASUREMENT OF AIR SUPPLIED

Problem 3.7: Following readings were obtained during the
test on a single cylinder, 4 stroke IC engine.
Dia of orifice of the air tank = 21 mm; pressure causing air
flow through the orifice = 10 cm of water. Find the quantity
of air consumed per second, if its density under atmospheric
conditions is 1.15 kg/m3. Take coefficient of discharge for the
orifice as 0.7.

Solution:
h w  0.1m of water ; a  1.15 kg/m 3; C d  0.7


Area of orifice A   0.021 2  3.464  10 4m 2
4

Head causing flow of air through orifice (H)

w
H  hw 
a

1000  . . .   1000 kg/m 3 

 0.1  w
1.15  

H  86.957 m of air column


Quantity of air flow in m 3/sec  V a  C d A 

2gH

 0.7  3.464  10 4 

 2  9.81  86.957

V a  0.010016 m 3/sec

Mass of air flow in kg/sec  V a  a

 0.010016  1.15  0.01152

3.34 Thermal Engineering - I

m 3 kg
 0.01152  or kg/s ec
sec m 3


m a 0.01152 kg/sec

3.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION

Fuel consumption can be specified in terms of volume
or by weight of fuel consumed. For automobiles it is
expressed in terms of kilometer per litre.

Measurement of fuel consumption is very important

in engine testing. Fuel consumption measurement is a
tedious process as it is affected by a number of factors:

(i) Vapour bubbles formed in the fuel line could cause

a back flow in the movement of fuel. Some flow
meters cannot distinguish between a back flow and
a forward flow.
(ii) In the case of turbine type flow meter, if there is
any swirl in the fuel flow, then it is registered as
a higher flow rate.
(iii) The density of fuel may vary according to the
temperature thereby causing errors in the
measurements.
(iv) Some flowmeters use light beam where the
measurement may be affected by the colour of the
fuel.
The basic flow measuring methods are

(i) Volumetric type

(ii) Gravimetric type

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.35

3.5.1 Volumetric type

Time taken by the engine to consume the required
volume is measured by using stop watch.
Volumetric flow rate is defined as the rate of
consumption of fuel over time
Consumption o f fuel
V olumetric flow rate 
Time

There are two methods to measure fuel consumption

based on volumetric type.
1. Burette method
2. Automatic volumetric flow meter
3.5.1.1 Burette method
A simple arrangement for
measuring fuel consumption rate is
shown in Fig 3.15(a). A small
glass tube burette is fitted to the
main fuel tank. When the fuel
consumption rate is to be
measured, the valve is closed and
the fuel is consumed from the
burette as shown in the figure.
For a known value of fuel consumption, the time is
measured and the fuel consumption rate is calculated as
under.

V cc  Sp.gravity of fu el
F ue l consumption kg/hr 
1000  time

In practical, the burette method is modified as shown

in Fig. 3.13.
3.36 Thermal Engineering - I

Fu el Stora ge Tank

3 - w a y cork

Index

1 00 cc
2 00 cc

Index

3 - w a y cork

To E ngin e
Fig. 3.13(b). Burette M ethod of M easuring Fuel Con su mption

This method consists of two spherical glass bulbs

having 100 cc and 200 cc capacities. They are connected to
three way corks, where one is used to feed the engine while
the other is being filled.
The volume of fuel lost in one of the bulb is equal to
the volume of fuel gained in the other. Glass bulbs of
different volumes are used so as to account to the small
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.37

variations in the fuel head which is highly essential in case

of carburetor engines.
Another reason to use the glass bulbs of different
capacities is to maintain the test timing as a constant
regardless of the engine load.

To avoid the error, the calibrations on the burette are

illuminated using photo cells.

A stop watch is used to determine the time taken for

fuel consumption and the volumetric fuel flow is thus
determined.

3.5.1.2 Automatic volumetric flow meter

This automatic volumetric type fuel flow measuring
instrument is commercially available. It consists of
measuring volume chamber (V) which has photocell (P) and
lighting source (S) fitted in tubular housings. These
housings are put opposite to each other at an angle so that
a point of light is formed on the axis of measuring volume
(V). Light source are also placed on the lower and upper
portions of the measuring cylinder. An equalization
chamber (E) is connected to the measuring tube through
the airtube (F) and, Magnetic valve (M) and an equalization
pipe (G) which are used to provide an air cushion. This
cushion is used to maintain the supply line pressure and
to store fuel during measurement.

WORKING
On pressing the start button, the lamps in the two
photoelectric systems light up so that the Magnetic valve
stops the flow on the lower end. The fuel level in the
measuring volume chamber starts falling down at a rate
depending on the engine consumption. At the same time,
3.38 Thermal Engineering - I

Po sition 1 Po sition 2 N o rm al flow

E F E F E F

S P S P S P

U U U

M easuring G G G
M easuring M easuring
Volum e Volum e
Volum e
S P S P S P
L L L

M M M

M eter M eter M eter

Fig. 3.14. Autom atic Vo lum etric Flow M eter.

an equal amount of fuel flows through equalization tube to

equalization chamber. When the fuel level reaches the
upper measuring level (U) inside the measuring chamber,
the focussed beam of light is reflected upon the photocell
at the lower end which in turn converts it into an electrical
signal. This signal opens the valve and starts the timer
counter.
When the fuel level falls to lower measuring level (L)
the corresponding signal stops the timer counter. Thus the
time period of consumption of fuel can be accurately
determined.

3.5.2 Gravimetric fuel flow measurement

Volumetric fuel flow meters are often used to
determine the time taken for fuel consumptions in liters.
Hence it is necessary to relate the output to the specific
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.39

Fuel Tan k

To E ngin e
Valve 1

Valve 2

Flask

Pa n of W eighing
Ba lance

Fig. 3.15. G ravim etric Fuel Flow Measuring Unit Schematic Diagram

gravity of the fuel in order to determine the efficiency of

the engine. Due to various external factors, this may lead
to several errors. Since the efficiency of an engine is
directly related to the mass of fuel and not its volume,
gravimetric fuel flow measuring device provides higher
accuracy relatively.
This method is used for weighing the fuel supplied to
the engine by an arrangement shown in Fig. 3.15.
Construction
It consists of a fuel tank which is connected to the
engine through a one way valve V1. The measuring unit
is a flask which is placed on a balance. A part of the fuel
3.40 Thermal Engineering - I

can enter the flask through a two way valve V2 as shown
in the figure.

Working
When the measurement is not needed V1 is opened
and V2 is closed, so that the fuel flows directly to the
engine. To measure the fuel consumed, V2 is now opened
and a part of the fuel from V1 is sent to the flask. The
weight of the fuel is recorded. V1 is then closed and the
fuel from the flask is syphoned off to the engine. The time
taken to completely consume the fuel from the flask is
recorded using a timer. This effectively determines the
mass of fuel consumed per unit time. Thus the fuel
consumption in gravimetric units are obtained.
3.5.3 Measurement of Heat Carried Away by Cooling
Water
The heat carried away by cooling water is measured
by measuring the quantity of water flowing through the
jacket and the rise in temperature of the cooling water. The
quantity of water flowing through the jacket is measured
by collecting it in a bucket for a specified time or directly
with the help of a flow meter. The inlet and outlet
temperatures of the water are measured by thermometers
which are inserted in the pockets provided. The heat
carried away by cooling water is given by

Q w  m w  C pw To  Ti

w here m w  mass of wa ter/minute

C pw  Specific heat of water generally taken as 4.187 kJ/kg

To  Outlet temperature of water in C

T i  Inlet temperature of w ater in C
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.41

3.6 EXHAUST GAS COMPOSITION

Emissions can be defined as the unburnt fuel and
other by-products exiting the combustion chamber. Based
on the visibility, emissions can be broadly classified into

 Visible emissions
 Invisible emissions
Some common emissions found are:

(i) Varbon dioxide

(ii) Water vapour
(iii) Unburnt hydrocarbons
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen
(v) Aldehydes
(vi) Carbon monoxide
(vii) Smoke
(viii) Particulate matter

Based on the type of emission, it’s effect on the

environment can vary.

3.6.1 Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxides of Nitrogen occur only in the engine exhaust
and are a combination of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide NO 2. Nitrogen and oxygen react only at high
temperatures. More amount of nitric oxide (NO) is formed
when the proper amount of oxygen is available and when
the combustion temperature is high.

The NO x concentration in exhaust is affected by the

mode of vehicle operation and the engine design. Air-fuel
ratio and spark advance also play a key role in it. The
concentration of NO x is low at rich and lean air fuel
3.42 Thermal Engineering - I

Sp an G a s inle t Sa m ple G a s in let

Air in le t

P
Flow M eter

NOX / NO
C o nvertor

O 3 G e n erator

Scrubb er 3 W a y Valve

R e action C ham be r

Ph oto
M ultip lier
Tube

Fig. 3.16. M easu ring O xides of

Nitro gen b y Chemilum inescence M eth od
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.43

mixtures. The maximum NO x is formed at air-fuel ratios

between 14:1 and 16:1. If the ignition advance is increased,
it will result in lower peak combustion temperatures and
high exhaust temperature and thus high NO x concentration
is obtained in the exhaust.
Chemiluminescence analyzer is a method used for
measuring Oxides of Nitrogen. The principle of
measurement is based a chemiluminescence reaction
between ozone and NO which results in the formation of
excited NO 2. This excited NO 2 emits light of intensity
proportional to the concentration of NO. Photo multiplier
tube is used to amplify and measure the light intensity.

Thus the concentration of NO x can be measured

effectively. However, Nitrogen dioxides NO 2 are not
measured by the analyser.

To analyse all the oxides of Nitrogen, a converter is

fitted in reaction chamber to convert oxides of nitrogen into
nitric oxide.

3.6.2 Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is emitted in engine exhaust as a
result of the incomplete combustion either due to
insufficient amount of air in air-fuel mixture, or insufficient
time in the cycle to complete the combustion. Theoretically
the gasoline engine exhaust can be made free from CO if
the air-fuel mixture ratio is greater than 16:1.

When the engine is in idling conditions, due to low

oxygen concentrations, production of CO is high. Upon
acceleration, due to enough oxygen supply, the formation of
CO is reduced. The amount of CO produced is minimum
3.44 Thermal Engineering - I

during accelerations and at constant speeds. During

decelerations, the supply of oxygen is minimized by closing
the throttle valve. Hence a high amount of CO is produced
at the exhaust.
The instrument used for measuring of CO is Non
Dispersive Infra-red Analyzer. This instrument is commonly
used for testing and legal certification of some automotive
exhaust emissions. This method of detection is based on
the principle of attenuation of light to the properties of the
material through which the light is travelling.

NDIR Method (Non Dispersive infrared method)

An NDIR setup typically consists of a sampling
chamber, a reference chamber, an infra-red light source and
an infra-red detector (Fig. 3.17). A chopper wheel is
mounted between the chambers and the light source, and
it is controlled by using a DC motor. The detector is placed
at the end of the chambers, directed towards the chamber.

The sampling chamber consists of the gas which is to

be detected (Carbon Monoxide emissions) while the
reference chamber consists of a known gas, typically
Fo c usin g S a m ple
L en s C h am be r

E m itter D e tec to r
R e feren ce
C h op pe r C h am be r
W h e el
Fig.3.17. S ch em atic D ia gram o f N D IR
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.45

Nitrogen. When the IR light is turned on, the radiations

excite the gases present in the chambers. These gases
absorb a portion of the radiation. The remaining
unabsorbed part of radiation is sent to the detector. The
wavelength of radiation produced in the sampling chamber
is compared with the wavelength from the reference
chamber and thus the amount of CO present in the
sampling chamber can be determined.

3.6.3 Unburnt hydrocarbons

In the case of incomplete combustion, the unburnt
hydrocarbon emission occurs. The induction system design
and combustion chamber design are the two key factors
which affect the amount of hydrocarbon emitted. Other
variables like air-fuel ratio, speed, load, mode of operations
and maintenance also play a major role in the emission
conditions.

The air-fuel ratio of the engine mainly depends upon

the configuration of the induction chamber. Since unburnt
hydrocarbons are a result of improper mixing of air and
fuel, the induction chamber directly influences these
emissions.

Engine maintenance also determines how long an

engine will operate in the designated air-fuel ratio. Piston
ring wears, coolant effectiveness, lubrication, deposits and
other factors regarding wear are also more likely to affect
the air-fuel ratio, thereby influencing the emissions.

The design of combustion chamber is important. A

portion of the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber
comes into direct contact with chamber walls where it is
quenched due to cooling action and do not burn completely.
3.46 Thermal Engineering - I

In exhaust stroke, this unburnt air-fuel mixture is forced

out from the chamber. Thus a sizable amount of unburnt
fuel exits the engine, thereby leading to high emission of
unburnt hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon emissions are usually measured using a
flame ionization detector Fig. 3.18. It works on the
principle that electrically charged particles move towards
the respective electrodes after ionization. The emitted
hydrocarbons are ionized to a plasma state inside a
chamber. The movement of ionized carbon atoms is
obtained in the form of micro ampheres. This is directly
proportional to the concentration of hydrocarbons.

H 2 + Air Fla m e

A m p lifie r

C ollector P late s E xit

G a ses

H eated M etal A ir D istrib utor

B lock
Flam e
C ham b er

A ir Fuel G a s
C apilla ry
C olu mn
Fig. 3.18. Flam e ion ization metho d for unburn t
hydrocarbon detection
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.47

3.6.4 Aldehydes
The fuels which contain aldehydes can lead to higher
level of oxygenated hydrocarbon emissions. Emission of
odorous hydrocarbons from the engine is generally known
as carcinogenic. These aldehydes are responsible for the
pungent smell from the engine exhaust.

Based on wet chemical principle, the measurement for

aldehydes are done by following methods.

(i) Dinitrophenol hydrozine method

(ii) Iodine titration method

(iii) Chronotropic acid method

3.7 VISIBLE EMISSIONS

Visible emissions are often considered as a nuisance.
For several diesel engine like cars, trucks, ships, buses,
motor cycles etc. smoke is one of the visible emissions.

3.7.1 Smoke
In combustion process, due to incomplete combustion,
smoke is formed and carried out from the engine exhaust.
Smoke in diesel engines are of blue, white and black in
colour. Smoke measurement can be done using comparison
method and obscuration method.

3.7.1.1 Comparison method

The regulation of smoke emissions is based on
estimation of density of smoke from exhaust. Among
comparison methods, ringelmann chart is one of the
commonly used methods. The amount of dense black smoke
from exhaust is directly correlated to the combustion
3.48 Thermal Engineering - I

2 0% B lack 4 0% B lack 6 0% B lack 8 0% B lack

C h art 1 C h art 2 C h art 3 C h art 4
Fig. 3.19. Ringelm ann Ch art

efficiency. If the smoke is darker, then the engine has poor

efficiency.
Ringelmann developed a chart, to categorize the
density of black smoke into four shades of gray, pure white
background and all black grids. To remove the difficulties,
the shades are built in black lines of varying widths.

By placing the charts nearly 10 m away from the

exhaust, the grids appear as shades of grey. Comparing the
shades of smoke with the corresponding shade on the charts
the density of the smoke can be determined. The charts
are numbered from 1 to 5 with 1 being clean smoke and
5 being most dense and black.

3.7.1.2 Obscuration method

This method can be divided into

(i) Light extinction type

(ii) Continuous filtering type

(iii) Spot filtering type

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.49

(i) Light extinction type

In this method, the intensity of light beam, is reduced
due to presence of smoke, which is a measure of smoke
intensity.

P h otoe le ctric c ell Illu m ina to r

( D e te ctor ) ( L ig ht S o urce )
E n gine
To Im ag e E xha u st
S e nso r

In dica ting M eter

Fig. 3.2 0. O bscu ration Metho d F or M easuring Smo ke

An exhaust sample of smoke is continuously passed

through a tube of 50 cm in length.

One end of the tube has a source of light while the

other end has a photocell. The intensity of light falling on
the photocell produces a relative amount of photocurrent.
The amount of photo current produced is inversely
proportional to the intensity of the smoke. Smoke level or
smoke density is defined as the ratio of electric output from
the photocell when sample is passed through the tube to
the electric output when clean air is passed through it.

(ii) Continuous Filtering Type

This type provides provision for continuous checking

of the quality of the exhaust. The measurement of smoke
intensity is carried out by passing the exhaust gas
3.50 Thermal Engineering - I

continuously through a moving strip of filter paper. The

filter paper collects the particles emitted from it.
Van Brand Smokemeter works on this principle.

E ngine
E xhau st

Filte r B locks

Filte r Ta pe R o ll
Filte r Ta pe D rive

Fig. 3.21. Con tin uou s F ilter Type Sm oke M eter.

The exhaust gas sample is passed continuously at

constant rate through a strip of filter paper which is
moving at preset speed. While moving the strip, a stain
due to emission is imprinted on the paper. The intensity
of the stain is directly proportional to the intensity of the
smoke produced. Amount of light passing through the paper
is usually used to determine the intensity of the stain.

(iii) Spot filtering type

The smoke intensity is measured by filtering the

quantity of exhaust gas through a fixed filter paper
Filte r Ta pe

E ngine E xh au st P um p

Fig. 3.22. Sp ot Filterin g Type Sm oke Meter.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.51

Bosch smokemeter is based on this concept. From the

exhaust, a definite quantity of exhaust gas is passed
through a fixed filter paper. The amount of smoke stains
on filter paper are evaluated by using a light source. Now
this type is modified by using a pneumatically operated
sampling pump and an electronic unit (Photo cell) to
measure the intensity of smoke stain. The intensity of the
smoke stain is directly proportional to the intensity of the
smoke.

La m p

P hoto Ele ctric

D e te ctor

R o llin g Filter
P aper d isc P ow e r
S ource

R e ciproca tin g
P iston

10

P neum a tic
Tripp in g D ev ice M icrom eter sc aled
0 to 1 0 sm oke num ber
(M ea su ring U n it)

B ellow s
S etting
K nob

Fig. 3.23. B osch S moke M eter.

3.52 Thermal Engineering - I

3.7.2 Measurement of Heat Carried Away by Exhaust

Gas
The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel is calculated
by the equation

 NC 
ma  o r m a can be measured by an orifice
33 C 1  C 2

(The mass of exhaust gases can be obtained by adding

together the mass of fuel supplied and the mass of air
supplied)

The heat carried away by exhaust gas per kg of fuel

is given by

Q g  m g C pg  T g  T a  m a  1  C pg Tg  Ta 

where m a  1   mass of exhaust gas formed

per kg of fuel supplied

C pg  Specific heat of exhaust gases

T g  Temperature of exhaust gases coming out of the engine in C

Ta  Ambient Temperature in C

3.8 HEAT BALANCE SHEET

A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied,

heat utilised and dissipated in different ways in a system.
The performance of the engine is obtained from the heat
balance sheet.

A heat balance account includes the following items.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.53


Heat supplied by the fuel to the engine  mf  L.C.V

where m f is the mass of fuel supplied per minute and L.C.V
is the lower calorific value of the fuel.

1. Heat equivalent of brake power =

Brake power  60 kJ/min . where Brake power is in kW.

2. Heat lost to jacket cooling water

 m w C pw T o  T i kJ/min

3. Heat lost to exhaust gases

 m g C pg  Tg  Ta  kJ/min

4. The remaining heat is lost by convection and radiation.

This cannot be measured and so this is known as
unaccounted loss. This is calculated by the difference of
heat supplied and the sum of (1) + (2) + (3). i.e
Q ua  Q s  [Q I.P or B.P  Q w  Qg kJ/hr]

A heat balance sheet is shown in Table below

Heat Balance Sheet

Heat supplied Heat expenditure

kJ % kJ %
per minute per minute
Heat supplied by — 100 1. Heat equivalent of — —
the combustion of brake power (or)
fuel Indicated Power
2. Heat lost to — —
jacket cooling water
3. Heat lost to — —
exhaust gases
4. Unaccounted heat — —
= Heat supplied –
[(1) + (2) + (3)]
Total — 100 Total — 100
3.54 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.8: A gas engine, working on 4 stroke constant

volume cycle (Otto cycle) gave the following results when loaded
by friction brake during a test of an hour’s duration.
Cylinder diameter = 250 mm; Stroke length = 500 mm
Clearance volume  4450  10 6 m3 Effective circumference of
the brake wheels = 3.86 m; Net load on brake 1260 N at overall
speed of 230 rpm. Average explosion/min 77; m.e.p = 7.5 bar.
Gas used 13m3/hr at 15C and 771 mm of Hg. L.C.V (Lower
Calorific Value) of gas 49500 kJ/m3 at NTP; Cooling jacket
water 660 kg raised to 35C. Heat lost to exhaust gases 10%.
Calculate 1. I.P. 2. B.P.; 3. Indicated thermal efficiency 4.
Relative efficiency; 5. Also draw a heat balance sheet for the
engine.

Solution:
1. To find I.P
P m AL n.e. 
I.P. 
60

where n.e. = no of explosion/min

7.5  10 2  /4  0.25 2  0.5  77

I.P 
60

 23.623 kW

2. To find B.P
2  NT 2  N[W  S  R ]
B.P.  
60 60

where R = effective radius; (W-S) Net load on brake = 1260 N

Effective circumference  d  3.86 m

d  1.2287 m
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.55

R  0.6143
2   230  1.26   0.6143
B.P 
60
 18.6437 kW

3. To find the Indicated thermal efficiency:

indicated

I.P  3600
indicated  
[V f  C.V]at N.T.P

First of all we have to find out V f at N.T.P condition
[i.e., N.T.P means Normal temperature 0C and pressure
760 mm of Hg]
C.V  49,500 kJ /m3

V f  V olume of fuel ga s at NTP in m 3/hr

TNTP  0C  273  273 K
P NTP  760 mm of Hg  1.01325 bar

Gas used V 1  13 m 3/hr; T 1  15  273  288K;

P 1  771 mm of Hg
P NTP V NTP P 1 V 1

TNTP T1
P 1 V1 TNTP
771  13 273
V NTP    
T1 P NTP 288 760

 12.50127 m 3/hr  V f

23.623  3600
 indicated   0.13743
12.50127  49500

 13.743 %
3.56 Thermal Engineering - I

4. To find Relative efficiency

Relative efficiency on the basis of indicated thermal 

Indicated thermal efficiency


Air standard efficiency

1
 air standard  Air standard efficiency  1 
1
r

 Total volume  Vs  Vc
where r  compression ratio   
 Clearance volume  Vc

 
Swept volume V s   D2  L   0.25 2  0.5
4 4
 0.02454 m 3
Clearance volume V c  4450  10  6 m 3
Vs  Vc 0.02454  4450  10  6
r   6.515
Vc 4450  10  6

1
 air standard  1   0.5275  52.75 %
6.515 1.4  1 [For air   1.4]
0.13743
Relative efficiency   0.260554
0.5275
 26.06 %
To draw Heat Balance Sheet [in min basis]

V f  C.V
Heat supplied by fuel Qs 
60
12.50127  49500

60
 10313.55 kJ/min
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.57

Q s  10,313.55 kJ/min

To find Q IP
Heat utilised for I.P.  23.623 kW  23.623  60

 1417.38 kJ/min

Q I.P.  1417.38 kJ /min

Q I.P 1417.38
Q I.P in%   100   100  13.74%
Qs 10313.55

Heat carried out by cooling water


Q w  m w Cpw t2  t1

 660
m w  660 kg/hr  Kg/min  11 kg/min
60

C pw  4.187 kJ/kg K

t2  t1   t  35 C

Q w  11  4.187  35  1612 kJ/min

Q w  1612 kJ/min

Qw 1612
Q w in%   100   100  15.63%
Qs 10313.55

Heat lost through exhaust gases

Q g  10% of Q s  0.1  10,313.55  1031.36 kJ/min

Q g  1031.36 kJ /m in

Qg 1031.36
Q g in%   100   100  10%
Qs 10313.55
3.58 Thermal Engineering - I

Unaccou nted heat loss  Q s  [QI.P  Q w  Q g]

 10313.55  [1417.38  1612  1031.36 ]

 6252.81 kJ/min

Q unaccounted  6253 kJ/min

Q ua 6253
Q ua in%   100   100  60.63%
Qs 10313.55

Now we can draw the heat balance sheet.

Heat Balance Sheet

CREDIT DEBIT
Heat Heat
kJ
supplied kJ/min % expenditure %
min
per minute per min
Heat supplied 10313.55 100% 1. Heat 1417.38 13.74%
by the utilized for
combus- tion I.P. QI.P.
of fuel
2. Heat 1612 15.63 %
carried out
by cooling
water Qw
3. Heat lost 1031.36 10%
through
exhaust
gases Qg
4. 6252.81 60.63%
Unaccounted
heat loss
Qunacc
Total 10313.55 100% 10313.55 100%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.59

Problem 3.9: During the trial of a single cylinder 4-stroke oil

engine, the following results were obtained. Cylinder dia 20 cm;
stroke 40 cm, MEP 6 bar, torque 407 N-m, speed 250 rpm, Oil
consumption 4 kg/h, Calorific value 43 MJ/kg, cooling water
flow rate 45 kg/min, air used per kg of fuel 30 kg, rise in
cooling water temperature 45C, temperature of exhaust gases
420C, room temperature 20C, mean specific heat of exhaust
gas 1 kJ/kgK. Find the indicated power, brake power, and
draw the heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/hr.
(JNTU - August 2014 set (2))

Solution:
To find Indicated Power
N
Pm  L  A 
2
I.P 
60 . .N 
 . 2 for 4 stroke 
 
  250
600  0.4    0.2 2  
 4  2
  15.71 kW
60

To find Brake Power

2  NT 2   250  0.407
BP    10.65 kW
60 60

To draw Heat Balance Sheet [in hour basis]


Heat supplied by fuel Q s  m f  C.V

 4  43  10 3  172  10 3 kJ/hr

Q ip
Heat utilized for I.P  15.71  3600

 56.556  10 3 kJ /hr
3.60 Thermal Engineering - I

Qw
Heat carried out by cooling water

Q w  m w Cpw t2  t1

 4.5  60  4.187 45  50.872  10 3 kJ/hr

Heat lost through exhaust gases ‘Q g’


Q g  m g  C pg   tg

A : F  30 : 1

m g  Air  Oil consum ption/hr

 30  4  4  124 kg/hr

Q g  124  1  420  20  49.6  10 3 kJ/hr

To find Unaccounted loss ‘Q U ’

Q u  Q s  [Q IP  Q w  Q g]

 172  10 3  [56.56  10 3  50.872  103  49.6  10 3]

Q  14.972  10 3 kJ/hr

Now we can draw the heat balance sheet.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.61

Heat Balance Sheet

CREDIT DEBIT
Heat Heat
kJ
supplied kJ/hr % expenditure %
hr
per hour per hour
Heat 172  103 1. Heat 56.56  103 32.9.%
supplied by utilized for
the combus- I.P. QI.P.
tion of fuel
2. Heat 50.87  103 29.6 %
carried out
by cooling
water Qw
3. Heat lost 49.6  103 28.8%
through
exhaust
gases Qg
4. 14.97  103 8.7%
Unaccounted
heat loss Qu
Total 172  10 3 100% 172  103 100%

Problem 3.10: In a test of oil engine, under full load, the

following results were obtained. IP 33 kW, Brake power 27 kW,
oil consumption 8 kg/h, Calorific value 43 MJ/kg, cooling
water flow rate 7 kg/min, rate of flow for water through gas
calorimeter 12 kg/h, rise in cooling water temperature 60C,
final temperature of exhaust gases 80C, room temperature
17C, Air-fuel ratio as mass basis 20, rise in water temperature
through exhaust gas calorimeter 40C, mean specific heat of
exhaust gas 1 kJ/kg. Draw the heat balance sheet and find thermal
and mechanical efficiencies. (JNTU - Aug 2014 - Set 3)
3.62 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:
IP  3600 33  3600
Indicated thermal    
m f  CV 8  43  10 3
 0.3453  34.53%
B.P  3600 27  3600
Brake thermal   
m f  CV 8  43  10 3
 28.26%

B.P 27
Mechanical    81.82%
I.P 33

To draw Heat balance sheet


Heat supplied by fuel Q s  mf  C.V

 8  43  10 3  344  10 3 kJ/kg

Q IP
Heat utilized for IP

Q IP  33  3600  118.8  10 3 kJ/hr

Qw
Heat carried out by cooling water

Q w  m w Cpw  Tw

 7  60   4.187  60

 105.51  10 3 kJ/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.63

Q cal
Heat lost through gas calorimeter

Q cal  12  4.187  40  2  10 3 kJ/hr

Heat lost through exhaust gases ‘Q g’


Q g  m g  C pg  Tg

A : F  20 : 1


m g  Air  Fuel co nsumption/hr

 8  20  8  168 kg/hr

Q g  168  1  80  17  10.58  10 3 kJ /hr

To find Unaccounted loss

Q U  Q S   Q IP  Q w  Q cal  Q g 
 

 344  10 3  [118.8  10 3  105.51  10 3  2  10 3

 10.58  10 3]

 107.11  10 3 kJ/hr

Now we can draw the heat balance sheet

3.64 Thermal Engineering - I

Heat Balance Sheet

CREDIT DEBIT
Heat Heat
kJ
supplied kJ/hr % expenditure %
hr
per hour per hour
Heat 344  103 100 1. Heat 118.8  103 34.53
supplied by utilized for
the combus- I.P. QI.P.
tion of fuel
2. Heat 105.51  103 30.67
carried out by
cooling water
Qw
3. Heat lost 10.58  103 3.08
through
exhaust gases
Qg
4. Heat lost 2  103 0.006
through gas
calorimeter
Qcal
5. 107.11  103 31.14
Unaccounted
heat loss Qu
Total 344  10 3 100 344  103 100%

Problem 3.11: Following data are available for a four stroke

4 cylinder petrol engine: Air-fuel ratio (by weight) 15.5:1
Calorific value of fuel 45,000 kJ/kg
mech  80%; air standard  53% ; Relative efficiency  70%
Volumetric efficiency 80%; stroke/bore ratio 1.25
Suction condition 1 bar and 27 C; Speed - 2400 rpm
Power at brakes = 75 kW: Calculate (1) compression ratio
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.65

(2) indicated (3) Brake specific fuel consumption (4) Bore and
stroke

Solution: 1. To find compression ratio:

Since it is petrol engine, we can use air standard
efficiency for otto cycle.

1
A ir stan dard efficiency  1 
1
r

1 . .
0.53  1  [ .   1.4 for air]
1.4  1
r

1
0.4
 1  0.53  0.47
r

1
r0.4 
0.47

r  6.603

2. Indicated thermal efficiency:

Indicated thermal 
Relative efficiency 
Air standard 

Indicated thermal   Relative   Air standard 

 0.7  0.53  0.371  37.1 %

3. To find brake specific fuel consumption


First of all, we have to find fuel consumption m f in
kg/hr

To find m f in kg/hr
We can use this formula

I.P  3600
Indicated thermal efficiency  
mf  C.V
3.66 Thermal Engineering - I

To find IP
B .P
Mech  
I.P.

B.P 75
I.P    93.75 kW
 mec h 0.8

 I.P.  3600
mf 
 indic ated  C.V.

93.57  3600
  20.216 kg/hr
0.371  45,000

 5.6155  10  3 kg/sec

mf 20.216
B.S.F.C    0.26954 kg/kW.hr
B.P 75

To find Bore and Stroke

For every 1 kg of fuel, mass of air-fuel mixuture
 1  15.5  16.5 kg

 For 5.6155  10  3 kg/sec of fuel, the mass of air-fuel

mixture  16.5  5.6155  10  3

 0.092655 kg/sec

To find volume of air-fuel mixture in m 3/sec V 
 
P V  m RT

 m
RT 0.092655  287  27  273
V 
P 1  10 5

 0.07978 m 3/sec
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.67

Actua l volume in m 3/sec

Volumetric efficiency 
S wept volu me in m3/sec

 V 0.07978
3
 Swept Vo lume in m /sec V s  
vol 0.8

 0.09972 m 3/sec

   N
Vs    D2  L   n
4  2  60
N
[ for 4 stroke cycle engine;
2

n  No of cylinders = 4;

L
 1.25; L  1.25 D ]
D

 2400
0.09972   D 2  1.25 D   4  78.54 D 3
4 2  60

B ore D  0.1083 m

S troke L  1.25 D  1.25  0.1083  0.1354 m

Problem 3.12: Calculate the bore and storke of a four stroke

single cylinder diesel engine designed to the following
particulars. B.P = 25 kW when running on diesel fuel having
composition by mass C = 85% and H2  15% and lower calorific
value of 41000 kJ/Kg. The fuel oil is burnt with 25% excess
air and volumetric efficiency calculated on atmospheric
condition of 1.01325 bar and 10C is 80%. Assume mechanical
efficiency of 0.9, indicated thermal efficiency of 0.35. Assume
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K and bore to stroke ratio of 1:12. Assume
speed of the engine 300 rpm.
3.68 Thermal Engineering - I

To find quantity of air required

Minimum air required per kg of fuel

100  8  O2  
  C  8  H2  S
23  3  8  
100  8 
  0.85  8 [0.15  0]  0 
23  3 
 15.0724 kg of air/kg of fuel

Since the fuel is burnt with 25% excess air quantity

of air required

 1.25  15.0724

 18.841 kg of air/kg of fuel

To find mass of air in kg/sec

B.P 25
I.P    27.78 kW
 mec h 0.9

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C.V.

where m f  mass of fuel in kg/hr

 I.P  3600
mf 
indic ated  C.V

27.78  3600
  6.969 kg/hr
0.35  41000

To burn 1 kg of fuel  18.841 kg of air required

to burn 6.969 kg/hr of fuel  18.841  6.969

 131.296 kg/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.69

So to burn 6.969 kg of fuel/hr, 131.296 kg of air/hr

is required.

The mass of air required = 131.296 kg/hr.

To find volume of air in m 3/sec

 
P V  m RT

 131.296  287  10  273

V 5
 105.25 m 3/hr
1.01325  10

 105.25
V  0.029235 kg/sec
3600

To find swept volume: V s
 Actual volume in m 3/sec
Swept vo lume V s 
vol

V 0.029235
 
 vol 0.8

   N
Also swept volume V s    D 2  L   n
4  2  60

D
 1.2; L  1.2 D
L

   300
V s  0.03654    D2  1.2 D   1
 4  2  60

 2.3562 D 3

D  0.2494 m

L  1.2 D  0.29925 m
3.70 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.13: A nine cylinder petrol engine of bore 150 mm

and stroke 200 mm has a compression ratio 6:1 and develops
360 kW at 2000 rpm when running on a mixture of 20% rich.
The fuel used has a calorific value of 43 MJ/kg and contains
85.3% carbon and 14.7% hydrogen. Assuming volumetric
efficiency of 70% at 17C and mechanical efficiency of 90%,
find the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine.
(April/May - 2013 (set-4))

Solution:
To find minimum air required per kg of fuel
100  8  O2  
  C  8  H2  S
23  3  8  
100  8 
  0.853  8 [0.147  0]  0 
23  3 
 15 kg of air/kg of fuel

To find Indicated thermal 

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  CV

So we have to find IP and m f

To find IP
BP 360
IP    400 kW
mech 0.9

To find m f
(Actual mass of fuel consumed in kg/hr)

Assume P  1.01325 bar  101.325 kPa


V  Volume of mixture sucked inside the cylinders in m 3/s
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.71

 N or N/2
V  V   vol   No.of cylinders
60

 2 N
Where V  D  L and for 4 stroke and n  9
4 2
cylinder.
   2000  1 
V    0.15 2  0.2  0.7     60  9 
 4  2  
 0.3711 m 3/s
 
PV  m RT

 P V 102.325  0.3711
m    0.452 kg/s
RT 0.287  290

15 kg of air is required for 1 kg of fuel

0.452
Mass of fuel used   0.03012 kg of fuel/sec
15

Since it is 20% rich mixture,

Actual amount of fuel used  0.03012  1.2

 0.03614 kg of fuel/sec

m f  mass of fuel/hr  0.03614  3600  130.11 kg /hr

To find indicated
I.P  3600 400  3600
indicated   
m f  CV 130.11  43  10 3

 0.2574

 25.74%

Problem 3.14: Air consumption for a four stroke petrol engine

is measured by means of a circular orifice of diameter 3.5 cm.
3.72 Thermal Engineering - I

The Cd of orifice is 0.6 and the pressure across the orifice is

14 cm of water. The barometer reads 760 mm of Hg.
Temperature of air in the room is 24 C. The piston
3
displacement volume is 1800 cm . The compression ratio is 6.5.
The fuel consumption is 0.13 kg/min of calorific value 44000
kJ/kg. The brake power developed at 2500 rpm is 28 kW.
Determine 1. Air fuel ratio, 2. the volumetric efficiency on the
basis of air alone 3. the brake mean effective pressure 4. the
relative efficiency on the basis of brake thermal efficiency

Solution:
To find air consumption in kg/sec
w
Head of air column causing flow H  h w
a

h w  14 cm  0.14 m

w  1000 kg/m 3

P 1.01325  10 5
where a  
RT 287  24  273

 1.18872 kg /m3

1000
H  0.14   117.774 m o f air
1.18872

V  A ir consu mption in m 3/sec  C d A 

2gH

C d  0.6


Area of orifice A   0.035 2  9.62112  10  4 m 2
4

V  0.6  9.62112  10  4 
2  9.81  117.774
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.73

 0.02775 m 3/sec
 
m  Air consumption in kg/sec  V  a

 0.02775  1.18872

 0.03299 kg/sec

Air fuel ratio

Mass of air in kg/sec 0.03299 15.23
Air fuel ratio   
Mass o f fuel in kg /sec 0.00216 1

Air consumption in one stroke (V)

 N
VV
2  60

V  2  60 0.02775  2  60
V 
N 2500

 1.332  10 3 m 3

V s  Sw ept volum e  piston displaceme nt volum e given

 1800 cm 3  1800  10 6m 3

To find volumetric efficiency

Actual volume in m 3
 volumetric 
Swept volume in m 3

1.332  10  3
  0.74
1800  10  6

 Volumetric  74%

To find Brake mean effective pressure

N
P m  LA n
2 . .
I.P  [ . N/2 fo r 4 stroke ]
60
3.74 Thermal Engineering - I

Pmbrake  LA N/2  n
Also B.P 
60

B.P  60
So P mBrake 
LA  N/2  n

LA  D isplaceme nt volume  1800  10  6 m 3

B.P  28 kW

28  60
P mBrake 
6
1800  10   2500 /2  1
[n  1 for single cylinder]

 746.667 kP a  7.47 bar

To find Brake thermal efficiency

B.P  3600
 brake  
m f  C.V

m f  m ass of fuel in kg/hr  0.13  60 kg/hr

C.V  44000 kJ/kg

28  3600
brake   0.29371  29.37 %
0.13  60  44000

To find Air Standard efficiency

[for otto cycle since petrol engine]

[compression ratio r = 6.5 given]

1 1
air standard  1  1  0.527
1 1.4  1
r 6.5

 52.7%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.75

To find relative efficiency on the basis of brake

brake 0.2937
Relative     0.5573  55.73 %
air standard 0.527

Problem 3.15: The following data were recorded during a test

on a 4 stroke cycle gas engine.
Area of indicator diagram  90 cm2 ;
Length of indicator diagram  7 cm ;
Spring scale  0.3 bar/mm [  3 bar/cm]
Diameter of piston  20 cm
Length of stroke  25 cm
Speed  300 rpm
Determine (i) Indicated mean effective pressure
(ii) Indicated Power. JNTU - January 2014 - Set 1

Solution:

To find Indicated mean effective pressure

P m indicated
ad  s 90  3
P m indicated  
ld 7

 38.57 bar

To find IP
N
P m in  AL  n
IP   2 
60

 2  2  300  
 38.57  10   0.2  0.25   1
4  2
  
60
. .N
[ . for 4 stroke]
2
3.76 Thermal Engineering - I

[n  1 for single cylinder]

 75.73 kW

Problem 3.16: A four stroke cycle gas engine has a bore of

20 cm and a stroke of 40 cm. The compression ratio is 6. In
a test on the engine, the IMEP is 5 bar, the air to gas ratio
in 6:1 and calorific value of the gas is 12 MJ/m3 at NTP. At
the beginning of the compression stroke, the temperature is
77C and pressure 0.98 bar. Neglecting residual gases, find the
indicated power and the thermal efficiency of the engine at 250
rpm. (JNTU - August 2014 - Set 4)

Solution:
Given data: 4 stroke; D  0.2 m ; L  0.4 m; r  6 ;
P mindicated  5 bar ; A : F  6, Cv  12  10 3 kJ/m 3 at NTP.

t1  77C; T 1  350 K ; P 1  0.98 bar

N
Pm  LA  n
Indicated power IP   2 
60

  250
5  10 2  0.4    0.2 2   1
4  2
I.P 
60

 13.09 kW

. .
[ . N/2 for 4 stroke and n  1 for single cylinder]

To find V f
 
V 1  V s   D 2  L   0.22  0.4  0.013 m3
4 4

 N /2 0.013  250/2

Vs  Vs    0.0271 m 3/s
60 60
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.77

V s  Volume of gas  Volume of air
  
 Vf  6 V f  7V f  0.0271 m 3/s

 0.0271
Vf   3.87  10  3 m 3/s
7

To find V f at NTP condition
NTP means T  0  273  273 K;P  1.01325 bar

P NTP V NTP P 1 V 1

T NTP T1

101.325  V NTP 98  3.87  10  3


273 350

V NTP  2.92  10  3 m 3/s  V f at NTP

To find indicated thermal efficiency

IP  3600 13.09
indicated   
Vf  CVNTP 2.92  10  3  12  10 3

 0.3736  37.36%

[V f is given in m 3/s ]
3.78 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.17: The following data refer to an oil engine

working on Otto four-stroke cycle:

Brake power  14.7 kW

Suction pressure  0.9 ba r
Mechanical efficiency  80%
Ratio of compression 5
Index of compression curve  1.35
Index of expansion curve  1.3
Maximum explosion pressure  24 bar
Engine speed  1000 r.p.m
Ratio of stroke: bore  1.5

Find the diameter and stroke of the piston.

[JNTU - January - 2014 set (4)]

Solution:
Refer Fig.

P
3

Ex
pa
ns
io n
2 PV 1 .3

Co =C
mp o ns
re s t.
s io
nP
V 1 .3
5
=C 4
on
s t.

V
V2 = V3 O TTO C ycle V1 = V4
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.79

B.P.  14.7 kW, P 1  0.9 ba r,  mech  80%, r  5, P 3  24 bar

L
N  1000 r.p.m ,  1.5; D  ?, L  ?
D

V1 V4
Compression ratio r  
V2 V3

To find P 2: (compression process 1-2)

P 1 V 1.35
1  P 2 V 1.35
2

1.35
 V1 
or P2     P 1  51.35  0.9
V
 2
 P 2  P1  8.78  0.9  8.78  7.9 bar

To find P 4: (Expansion process 3-4)

P 3 V 1.3 1.3
3  P4 V 4

1.3
 V4 
[P 3/P 4]     51.3  8.1
V
 3
P3 24
P4    2.96 bar
8.1 8.1

Work done/cycles  Area 1  2  3  4

 Area under the curve 3  4  area under the curve 1  2

P 3 V 3  P 4 V4 P 2 V 2  P 1V 1
 
1.3  1 1.35  1

10 2 24V 3  2.96 V 4 10 2 7.9V 3  0.9V 4

 
0.3 0.35 . .
[ . V1  V4 and V2  V3]
3.80 Thermal Engineering - I

 [80 V 3  9.87 V 4  22.57 V 3  2.57V 4]  10 2

 57.43 V 3  7.3 V 4  10 2

 . . V4 
 57.43 V3  7.3  5V 3  10 2  . V 5
 3 

 2093 V 3 kN  m

Mean effective pressure

Work done/cycle
Pm 
Stroke volume V s
2093 V 3 2093 V 3
   523.25 kPa  5.23 bar
V 4  V 3 5V 3  V 3
B.P.
Now, mech 
I.P.
B.P. 14.7
 I.P.    18.37 kW
m ech 0.8

To find D and L:
N
P m LA  n
 2 
I.P 
60

. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  1 for single cylinder]
2

  1000
523  1.5D    D 2   1
 4  2
18.37 
60

D 3  3.5795  10  3
D  0.152 m
L  1.5D  1.5  0.152  0.229 m
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.81

Problem 3.18: A 2 cylinder 4 stroke engine runs at 240 rpm

developing a torque of 5 kN-m. The bore and stroke of cylinder
are 30 cm and 60 cm respectively. Engine runs with gaseous
fuel having calorific value of 16.8 MJ/m3. The gas and air
mixture is supplied in proposition of 1:7 by volume. The
volumetric efficiency is 0.85. Determine, (i) Brake Power
(ii) The piston speed in m/s. (iii) The brake mean effective
pressure (iv) The brake thermal efficiency.
(JNTU - Apr/May 2013 - Set 1)

Solution:
(i) Brake Power

2  NT 2   240  5
B.P    125.67 kW
60 60

 LN 
(ii) Mean piston speed  2 
 60 
2  0.6  240
vp   4.8 m/s
60

(iii) Pmb Brake mean effective pressure

N
P mb  LA  n
2
B.P 
60

. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  2 cylinder]
2
125.67  60
Pmb 
   240 
0.6    0.3 2    2
 4   2 

 740.95 kPa  7.41 b ar

3.82 Thermal Engineering - I

(iv) Brake thermal efficiency  brake

B.P
  3600
 brake 
V f  CV

To find V f
 
Vs   D2  L   0.3 2  0.6  0.0424 m3
4 4

Actual volume V  0.0424  0.85  0.036 m 3 in 1 cycle

 N
Actual volume of mixture in m 3/s  V  V  n
2  60
. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  2 for 2 cylinder]
2
 240
V  0.036  2
2  60

 0.144 m 3/s
  
V  Volume of mixture  V a  V f  0.1442

[V f  Volume of fuel in m 3/s ]
  
 7 V f  V f  8 Vf  0.1442

 0.1442
Vf   0.018 m 3/s
8

V f in m 3/hr  64.8 m 3/hr

Brake thermal     3600

B.P
V f  CV

125.67  3600
  0.4156
64.8  16.8  10 3

 41.56%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.83

Problem 3.19: A four stroke four cylinder diesel engine

running at 300 rpm produces 250 kW of brake power. The
cylinder dimensions are 30 cm bore and 60 cm stroke. Fuel
consumption rate is 1 kg/min while air fuel ratio is 10. The
average indicated mean effective pressure is 0.8 MPa.
Determine indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake
thermal efficiency and volumetric efficiency of the engine. The
CV is 43 MJ/kg. The ambient conditions are 1.013 bar and
27C (JNTU-Apr/May -2013 (set 2))

Solution:

(i) To find Indicated Power

N
Pm  L  A  n
2
I.P 
60 . .N
[ . for 4 stroke, n  4 for 4 cylinder]
2
 300
0.8  10 3  0.6   0.3 2  4
4 2

60

 339.3 kW

(ii) Mechanical efficiency

B.P 250
 mech    0.737  73.7%
I.P 339.3

(iii) Brake thermal 

B.P  3600
 brake  
m f  CV

[m f  1  60  60 kg/hr]

250  3600
  0.349  34.9%
60  43  10 3
3.84 Thermal Engineering - I

(iv) Volumetric 
V actual
vol 
Vs

Mass of air fuel mixture  1  10  11 kg/min

 0.183 kg/s
 
P V  m RT

 0.183  0.287  300

V  0.156 m 3/s
101.3
 N
V  V actual per cycle  n
2  60

V  2  60
V actual per cycle 
Nn

0.156  2  60

300  4

V actual  0.156 m 3/cycle

  
Vs   D 2  L    0.3 2  0.6 
4 4 
 0.0424 m3

V actual 0.0156
vol    0.368  36.8%
Vs 0.0424

Problem 3.20: A 4 stroke cycle automobile engine is tested

while running at 3600 rpm. Inlet air temperature is 18C and
the pressure is 101.36 kN/m2. The engine has eight in-line
cylinders with a total piston displacement of 4000 cc. The
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.85

airfuel ratio is 15 and the bsfc is 0.39 kg/kWh. Dynamometer

readings show a power output of 89 kW. Find the volumetric
efficiency. (JNTU - May 2013)

Solution:
Brake specific fuel consumption BSFC  0.39 kg/kWh

mf 
BSFC   mf  0.39  89  34.71 kg/hr
B.P

Mass of air/hr  15  34.71  520.65 kg/hr

Total air fuel mixture  555.36 kg/hr

 
m  m af  0.154 kg /s
 
PV  m RT

 m
RT 0.154  0.287  291
V   0.127 m3/s
P 101.36

Actual volume of mixture V  0.127 m 3/s

V s swept volume in 1 cycle  4000 cm 3

 4000  10  6 m 3

N
  2 
V s in m 3/s  V s   n
60

4000  10  6  3600  8

2  60

 0.96 m 3/s . .
[ . n  8 cylinder]

V 0.127
 vol     0.1323  13.23%
Vs 0.96
3.86 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.21: A four stroke petrol engine with a compression

ratio of 6.5 to 1 and total piston displacement of
3 3
5.2  10 m develops 100 kW brake power and consumes 33
kg of petrol per hour of calorific value 44300 kJ/kg at 3000
r.p.m. Find.(i) Brake mean effective pressure (ii) Brake
thermal efficiency (iii) Air standard  and (iv) Air fuel ratio
by mass. Assume volumetric efficiency of 80%. One kg of petrol
vapour occupies 0.26 m3 at 1.013 bar and 15C. Take R for
air 287 J/kgK. (JNTU - April/May-2013) (set 3) )

Solution:

(i) Brake mean effective pressure

B.P  60
P mb 
N
AL   n
 2 
. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  1 for single cylinder]
2

100  60
P mb 
 3000 
[5.2  10  3]   1
 2 
[AL  Total piston displacement
 769.23 kPa  7.7 bar
 5.2  10 3 m 3  V s ]

(ii) To find Brake thermal efficiency: brake

B.P  3600 100  3600
brake     0.2463  24.63%
m f  CV 33  44300

(iii) To find Air standard efficiency

1
air standard otto  1 
1
r
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.87

1
1  0.527  52.7%
6.50.4

(iv) Air Fuel Ratio by mass

 N
Vs  Vs 
2  60

3000
 5.2  10  3 
2  60

V s  0.13 m 3/s

Actual volume of air fuel mixture V  vol  VS

V  0.8  0.13  0.104 m 3/s

   P V 101.3  0.104
P V  m RT  m    0.127 kg/s
RT 0.287  288

Mass of air fuel mixture


m  0.127  3600  459 kg/hr

Mass of air/hr m a  (mass of air fuel mixture – mass of fuel)

 459  33  426 kg /hr

Air in kg/hr 426

Air Fuel ratio on mass basis  
Fuel in kg/hr 33

 12.9

Problem 3.22: A four cylinder, four stroke cycle petrol engine

80 mm bore, 130 mm stroke develops 29 kW brake power while
running at 1500 rpm and using a 20% rich mixture. If the
volume of air into the cylinder when measured at 15.5C and
760 mm of mercury is 70% of the swept volume, the theoretical
air fuel ratio in 15, the heating value of the petrol used is
3.88 Thermal Engineering - I

44000 kJ/kg and the mechanical efficiency of the engine is

90%, find (a) Indicated thermal efficiency and (b) Brake mean
effective pressure. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.

Solution:
Given : No of cylinders = 4; Type 4 stroke; Bore =
80mm = 0.08 m; L = 0.130 m; B.P = 29 kW; N = 1500
rpm; Mixture strength = 20% Rich; Volume of air at
15.5C and 760 mm of Hg = 70% of V s. Theoretical Air fuel
ratio = 15; C.V = 44,000 kJ/kg.
mech  0.9; R  0.287 kJ/kg K

To find Indicated thermal 

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C .V

So we have to find IP and m f

To find I.P.
B.P 29
I.P    32.22 kW
mec h 0.9

To find m f (Actual mass of fuel consumed in kg/hr)
760 mm of Hg  1.01325 bar

V  Volume of mixture sucked inside the cylinders in m 3/sec
 N or N/2
V  V  vol   No . o f cylinder
60
 N
where V   D 2  L and for 4 stroke.
4 2
  1500
So V   0.08 2  0.13  0.7  4
4 2  60
 0.022871 m 3/sec
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.89
 
P V  m RT
 5
 P V 1.01325  10  0.022871
m 
RT 287  15.5  273

m  0.02798 kg /sec

Theoretically 15 kg of air is required for 1kg of fuel

0.02798
So mass of fuel used 
15

 1.8653  10  3 kg o f fuel/sec

Since it is 20% rich mixture

Actual amount of fuel used  1.8653  10  3  1.2

 2.2384  10  3 kg of fuel/sec

m f  m ass of fuel/hr  2.2384  10 3  3600

 8.05824 kg of fuel /hr

To find in dicated

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C.V

32.22  3600

8.05824  44000

 0.32714  32.714 %

To find Brake Mean effective pressure

P m AL N/2
I.P   No. of cylinders
60

Pmb AL N/2
S im ilarly B.P.   No. of cylinders
60
3.90 Thermal Engineering - I

B.P.  60
P mb 
AL  N/2  4

29  10 3  60

 2 1500
  0.08   0.13  4
4  2

 887595 N/m 2

Break mean effective pressure P mb   8.87595 bar

Problem 3.23: A two stroke cycle 20 cm bore  30cm stroke,

single cylinder oil engine gives the following results. Speed 350
rpm, Net brake load = 600 N; Diameter of brake drum = 1m
Oil consumption = 4.25 kg/hr. Indicated mean effective
pressure = 275 kN/m2; C.V = 43000 kJ/kg; A.F = 32; Temp
of room air = 20 C; Temp of exhaust gases = 370C. Calculate
1. Indicated power; 2. Brake power; 3. indicated ; 4. brake
and 5. % heat lost to exhaust gases. The Cp for exhaust gases
in 1.

Solution:
To find Indicated Power
Pm  L  A  N . .
I.P   No .of cylinders [ . N fo r 2 strok e
60
n  1 for single cylinder)]

 
275  0.3    0.2 2   350
4 
  1512 kW
60

To find Brake power

2  N W  S R
B.P 
60  1000
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.91

2  350 600  0.5


60  1000

 10.996 kW

To find in dicated

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C.V

m f  4.25 kg/hr ; C.V  43,000 kJ /kg

15.12  3600
indicated thermal   0.29785  29.79 %
4.25  43,000

To find Brake
B .P  3600 10.996  3600
Brake thermal     0.21661
m f  C .V 4.25  43,000

 21.661 %

To find % heat lost in exhaust gases

Mass of fuel consumed in 1 hr = 4.25 kg
For 1 kg of fuel, mass of air required = 32 kg
 For 4.25 kg of fuel,
Mass of air required  32  4.25  136 kg
 Total mass of exhaust gases = Mass of fuel + Mass of
air consumed.

 4.25  136  140.25 kg/hr

Heat carried out by exhaust gases in 1 hr
 m e C p t2  t1
 140.25  1  370  20
 49087.5 kJ/hr
3.92 Thermal Engineering - I

% heat lost in exhaust gases

Heat carried away by exha ust gas

Heat supplied by fuel

49087.5
  0.2686  26.86 %
4.25  43,000

Problem 3.24: A single cylinder 4 stroke diesel engine gave

the following while running on full load.
Area of Indicator diagram  3 cm2; Length of the diagram =
4 cm; spring constant  1000 kN/m2/cm; speed of engine = 400
r.p.m; Load on the brake = 400 N; spring balance reading =
50 N; Diameter of the brake drum = 1.2 m; Fuel consumption
= 3 kg/hr; C.V = 42,000 kJ/kg; Dia. of cylinder = 17 cm;
stroke = 20 cm.
Calculate (1) Indicated mean effective pressure; (2) Indicated
power; (3) Brake mean effective pressure; (4) Brake specific fuel
consumption and (5) Brake thermal and indicated thermal
efficiencies.

Solution:
To Find (1) Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
Area of in dicator diagram
Pm   spring constant
Length of indicator diagra m

3
  1000  750 KN/m 2
4

2. To Find Indicated Power

P m L AN/2 . .N 
I.P   . 2 for 4 strokes 
60  
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.93

  400
750  0.2    0.17 2  
4  2
  11.35
60

I.P  11.35 k W

3. To Find Brake Power

2NW  S  R
B.P 
60  1000

2  400  400  50   0.6


60  1000

B.P  8.7965 kW

To Find Brake Mean Effective Pressure Pmb 

N
P mb  LA  
B.P   2 
60

B.P  60
P mb 
N
LA  
 2 
8.7965  60

  400
0.2    0.17 2  
 4  2

 581.32 kN/m 2

To Find Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (B.S.F.C)

Fuel consumed in kg/hr
B.S.F.C 
B.P

3
  0.341 kg/kWhr
8.7965

 0.341 kg/kWhr
3.94 Thermal Engineering - I

To find in dicated thermal

I.P  3600
 indicated thermal  
m f  C.V

11.35  3600
  0.3243
3  42,000

 32.43%

To Find brake therm al

B.P  3600
 brake thermal  
m f  C.V

8.7965  3600
  0.25133
3  42,000

 25.133%

Problem 3.25: The compression curve on the indicator

1.3
diagram from a gas engine follows the law pv  constant.
At two points on the curve at 1/4 stroke and 3/4 stroke, the
pressures are 140 kN/m2 and 360 kN/m2 respectively.
Determine the compression ratio of the engine. Calculate the
thermal efficiency and the gas consumption per kW hour on
indicated power basis if the relative efficiency is 0.4 and the
gas has the C.V of 18,840 kJ/m3.

Solution:
V s  Swept volume in m 3

V c  Clearance volume in m 3

Assume the point (1) is at 1/4th of stroke and the

point (2) is at 3/4th of stroke on the PV diagram.
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.95

To Find Compression Ratio

1
V1  Vc  Vs  Vs  Vc  0.75 Vs ... (i)
4

3
V2  Vc  Vs  V  Vc  0.25 Vs ... (ii)
4 s B

P 1V1.3 1.3
1  P 2V 2 P2 2 PV
1.3
=C

1.3
 V1  P2 P1 1
A
V  
P1
 2 V C= C le ara nce
Vo lu m e
1
V1  360 
1.3
0 .25 V S
  2.068
V 2  140  VC 0 .75 V S
V S = S w ep t Vo lu m e

V1  2.068 V 2 ... (iii)

from (i) and (ii), substitute the value of V1 & V2 in (iii)

Vc  0.75 Vs  2.068 Vc  0.25V s  2.068 V c  0.517 V s

0.233 V s  1.068 V c

Vs
 4.583
Vc

Total volume
Compression ratio 
Clearance volume
Vc  Vs Vs
 1
Vc Vc
 1  4.583  5.583
To Find Thermal Efficiency
1 1
 air stand ard  1  1
1
r 5.583 1.4  1

 49.74%
3.96 Thermal Engineering - I

Indicate d thermal 
Re lative efficiency 
A ir standard 

Indicated thermal    relative  air standard

 0.4  0.4978

 0.1989  19.89 %

To Find Gas Consumption in m 3/kWhr

I.P  3600
indicated thermal  
V f  C.V

Substitute I.P  1 kW

Then Vf is in m 3/kWhr

 1  3600
So Vf   0.9605 m 3/kWhr
0.1989  18840

V f  0.9605 m 3/kWhr

Problem 3.26: Calculate the relative efficiency based on

indicated power and A:F ratio for a four stroke gas engine
working on otto cycle from the following data:
Brake power = 5 kW; Speed = 180 r.p.m; Volumetric
efficiency=85%; Clearance volume  1500 cm3; Swept volume
 6500 cm3; mech  80%; Fuel consumption 4 m3/hr
C.V  17,000 kJ/m3.

Solution:
To Find relative
Indicated thermal 
 relative 
Air standard 
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.97

B.P 5
I.P    6.25 kW
 mech 0.8

I.P
  3600
Indicated thermal 
V f  C.V

6.25  3600
  0.331  33.1%
4  17,000

1
 Air standard  1 
r  1

Vc  Vs
where r  Compression ratio 
Vc

1500  6500
  5.333
1500

1
 Air standard  1   0.4881  48.81%
5.333 0.4

indicated thermal 0.331

 relative    0.6782
air std 0.4881

 67.82%

V cycle in m 3  V s  vol [If vo l is not given, then vo l  1 ]

 N o r N/2
V in m 3/sec  Vc yc le   No . of cylinders
60

[N for 2 stroke and N /2 for 4 stroke]

Volume of mixture admitted into the cylinder per cycle

V cycle in m 3  V s  vol  6500  0.85  5525 cm 3

 5525  10  6m 3
3.98 Thermal Engineering - I

4 1
Volume of fuel consumed per cycle  
60 N/2

4 1
 
60 90

 7.4074  10  4m3

So volume of air per cycle

 5525  10  6  7.4074  10  4

 4.7842  10  3m 3

4.7842  10  3
A:F ratio by volume 
7.4074  10  4

 6.4588 :1

Problem 3.27: Determine the bore and stroke of a single

cylinder 4 stroke oil engine from the following data:
Brake power = 18.5 kW; Engine speed = 250 r.p.m. At suction,
Volumetric   80%; Pressure at the end of suction = 100 kPa;
Temp. at the end of suction  10C mech  88%;
indicated thermal  35%. % of C and H in the fuel used 85% and
15%. C.V. of fuel used = 42,000 kJ/kg; Excess air supplied =
24%; Stroke-bore ratio = 1.5.

Solution:
Brake pow er 18.5
Indicated Power    21.023
mech 0.88

I.P  3600 21.023  3600

 indicated thermal  0.35    
m f  C.V m f  42,000

 21.023  3600
mf   5.15 kg/hr
0.35  42,000
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.99

5.15 5.15
Mass of fuel per stroke  
60  N /2  250 
60   
 2 

 6.867  10  4kg

C  O 2  CO 2 and 2H 2  O 2  2H 2O

12  32  44 and 4  32  36

Actual amount of air required per kg of fuel

 32 32  100
  0.85   0.15    1.24  18.69 kg
 12 4  23

 Air required per stroke  6.867  10  4  18.69

 0.012834 kg

Volume of air required per stroke

mR T 0.012834  287  10  273

V  3
 10.42  10  3m 3
P 100  10

10.42  10 3
Volume of cylinder 
 vol

10.42  10  3 3
 m
0.8

 13.03  10  3

 
  D 2  L   D2  1.5D
4 4

D  0.223 m ; L  1.5 D  0.3342 m