I. C.

Engines
 Introduction
 Heat engine is a machine for converting heat,
developed by burning fuel into useful work. It can be
said that heat engine is equipment which generates
thermal energy and transforms it into mechanical
energy.
 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES
Based on combustion of fuel:
(i) External combustion engine
(ii) Internal combustion engine.
External Combustion engine
 Here, the working medium, the steam, is
generated in a boiler, located out side the engine
and allowed in to the cylinder to operate the
piston to do mechanical work.
 Internal Combustion Engine
 In internal combustion engine, the
combustion of fuel takes place
inside the engine cylinder and heat
is generated within the cylinder.
This heat is added to the air inside
the cylinder and thus the pressure
of the air is increased
tremendously. This high pressure
air moves the piston which rotates
the crank shaft and thus
mechanical work is done.
 Based on ignition of fuel IC engine
is two types:
1. Spark Ignition & 2. Compression
Ignition.
 Spark Ignition Engine
 A mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine
cylinder. Ignition of fuel is done by using a spark
plug. The spark plug produces a spark and ignites
the air-fuel mixture. Such combustion is called
constant volume combustion (C.V.C.) because the
volume inside the cylinder is almost constant when
combustion is taking place.
 Petrol Engine is this type of engine.
 Compression Ignition Engine
 In compression ignition engines air is compressed in to
the engine cylinder. Due to this the temperature of the
compressed air rises to 700-900 °C. At this stage diesel
is sprayed in to the cylinder in fine particles. Due to a
very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type
of combustion is called constant pressure combustion
(C.P.C.) because the pressure inside the cylinder is
almost constant when combustion is taking place.
 Diesel Engine is this type of engine.
 Thermodynamic cycle
It is a series of events that repeat themselves in
a regular sequence. The cycle consists of
events taking place between two successive
explosions in a cylinder of the engine.
Thermodynamic cycle used for IC engine is of
two types:
1. Otto Cycle, & 2. Diesel Cycle.
 Otto cycle
 In this cycle the heat is taken in at constant volume and
rejected at constant volume of the cylinder.
 Thermal efficiency of the engine,

 r = compression ratio=
 γ=is ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)=1.4

Cp= Sp. heat at constant Pressure

Cv= Sp. heat at constant volume

 Engines based upon this principle is called Otto engines

Otto cycle
 Diesel cycle
 In this cycle the heat is taken in at constant pressure
and rejected at constant volume.
 Thermal efficiency of the engine,

α = is the cut-off ratio

(ratio between the end and start
volume for the combustion phase)
 r = compression ratio=
 γ=is ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)

 Engines based upon this principle is called Diesel

 The cycle of I.C engine can be completed in two
ways:
1. Four stroke cycle engine: The four events
namely suction, compression, power and exhaust
are completed in four strokes of the piston (two
revolutions of the crank shaft).
2. Two stroke cycle engine: The whole
sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power
and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the
piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft.

Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

 Four stroke cycle engine
 This engine has got valves for
controlling the inlet of charge
and outlet of exhaust gases.
 The opening and closing of the
valve is controlled by cams, fitted
on camshaft.
 The camshaft is driven by
crankshaft with the help of
suitable gears or chains.
 The camshaft runs at half the
speed of the crankshaft.
 The crankshaft is driven by
piston through connecting rod.
 1. Suction stroke
 During suction stroke inlet valve
opens and the piston moves
downward.
 Only air ( for Diesel engine) or a
mixture of air and fuel (for Petrol
engine) are drawn inside the
cylinder.
 The exhaust valve remains in
closed position during this
stroke.
 The pressure in the engine
cylinder is less than atmospheric
pressure during this stroke.
 2. Compression stroke
 During this stroke the piston moves
upward. Both valves are in closed
position.
 The charge taken in the cylinder is
compressed by the upward movement
of piston.
 If only air is compressed (for diesel
engine), diesel is injected at the end of
the compression stroke and ignition of
fuel takes place due to high pressure
and temperature of the compressed air.
 If a mixture of air and fuel is
compressed in the cylinder (for petrol
engine) the mixture is ignited by a
spark plug.
 3. Power stroke
 After ignition of fuel, tremendous
amount of heat is generated,
causing very high pressure in the
cylinder which pushes the piston
downward.
 The downward movement of the
piston at this instant is called power
stroke.
 The connecting rod transmits the
power from piston to the crank shaft
and crank shaft rotates fly wheel.
Mechanical work can be taped at
the rotating flywheel.
 Both valves remain closed during
power stroke.
 4. Exhaust stroke
 During this stroke piston moves
upward.
 Exhaust valve opens and exhaust
gases go out through exhaust
valves opening.
 All the burnt gases go out of the
engine and the cylinder becomes
ready to receive the fresh charge.
 During this stroke inlet valve
remains closed.
 Two stroke cycle engine
 There is no valve in this type of engine.
 Gas movement takes place through holes called
ports in the cylinder.
 The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which the
crankshaft rotates.

Exhaust port

Transfer port

Suction port
Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression)
 When the piston moves upward it covers
two of the ports, the exhaust port and
transfer port, which are normally almost
opposite to each other.
 This traps the air-fuel mixture (for petrol
engine) or air (for diesel engine) drawn
already in to the cylinder.
 Further upward movement of the piston
compresses the charge and also uncovers
the suction port.
 Now fresh mixture is drawn through this
port into the crankcase.
 Just before the end of this stroke, the
mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a spark
plug (for petrol engine) or fuel is injected
(for diesel engine) .
 Thus, during this stroke both suction and
Downward stroke of the piston (Power + Exhaust)
 Combustion of the fuel rises the
temperature and pressure of the gases
which forces the piston to move down
the cylinder.
 When the piston moves down, it closes
the suction port, trapping the fresh
charge drawn into the crankcase
during the previous upward stroke.
 Further downward movement of the
piston uncovers first the exhaust port
and then the transfer port.
 Now fresh charge in the crankcase
moves in to the cylinder through the
transfer port and driving out the burnt
gases through the exhaust port.
 Thus during this stroke power and
 Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

1. One power stroke for every 1. One power stroke for each
two revolution of the crankshaft.
revolutions of the crankshaft.
2. There are inlet and exhaust 2. There are inlet and exhaust
valves in ports instead of valves.
the engine.
3. Top of the piston compresses 3. Both sides of the piston
the compress the
charge. charge.
4. Thermal efficiency is high. 4.Thermal efficiency is
comparatively low.
5. Weight of engine per hp is 5. Weight of engine per hp is
high. comparatively low.
6. Size of the flywheel is 6. Size of the flywheel is
comparatively comparatively
larger. smaller.
7. It can be operated in one 7. It can be operated in both
direction direction
only. (clockwise and counter
 Special features of diesel engine
1) Engine has high compression ratio ranging from 14:1
to 22:1.
2) During compression stroke, the engine attains high
pressure ranging from 30 to 45kg/cm² and high
temperature of about 500°C.
3) At the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected
into the cylinder through injectors (atomizers) at a very
high pressure ranging from 120 to 200 kg/cm².
4) Ignition takes place due to heat of compression only.
There is no external spark in diesel engine.
5) Diesel engine has better slogging or lugging ability i.e.
it maintains higher torque for a longer duration of time
at a lower speed.
 Diesel engine Petrol engine
1.It has got no carburetor, 1.It has got carburetor, ignition
ignition coil and spark plug. coil & spark plug.
2. It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ 2. It has got no fuel injection
and pump and
Injector. injector.
3.Its compression ratio varies 3. Its compression ratio varies
from 14:1 to from 5:1 to
22:1 8:1.
4. It uses diesel oil as fuel. 4. It uses petrol as fuel.
5. Only air is sucked in cylinder 5. Mixture of fuel and air is
in suction sucked in the
stroke. cylinder in suction stroke.
6. Fuel is injected in combustion 6. Air fuel mixture is compressed
chamber in the
where burning of fuel takes combustion chamber when it is
places due ignited by
to heat of compression. an electric spark.
7. Thermal efficiency varies from 32 7. Thermal efficiency varies from 25
to 38%. to 32%.
Engine components
 Engine components
1. Cylinder: It is a part of the
engine which confines the
expanding gases and forms
the combustion space. It
provides space in which piston
operates to suck the air or air-
fuel mixture. The piston
compresses the charge and
the gas is allowed to expand in
the cylinder, transmitting
power for useful work.
Cylinders are usually made of
high grade cast iron.
2. Cylinder block: It is the solid
casting body which includes
the cylinder and water jackets
(cooling fins in the air cooled
 Engine components
3. Cylinder head: It is a detachable
portion of an engine which covers
the cylinder and includes the
combustion chamber, spark plugs
or injector and valves.
4. Cylinder liner or sleeve: It
is a cylindrical lining which is
inserted in the cylinder block in
which the piston slides. Liners are
classified as : (1) Dry liner and (2)
Wet liner.
 Dry liner makes metal to metal Cylinde
contact with the cylinder block r liner
casing.
Piston
 wet liners come in contact with the
cooling water, whereas dry liners
do not come in contact with the
cooling water.
 Engine components
5. Piston: It is a cylindrical part closed at
one end which maintains a close
sliding fit in the engine cylinder. It is
connected to the connecting rod by a
piston pin. The force of the expanding
gases against the closed end of the
piston, forces the piston down in the
cylinder. This causes the connecting
rod to rotate the crankshaft. Cast iron
is chosen due to its high compressive
strength. Aluminum and its alloys
preferred mainly due to it lightness.
 Head (Crown) of piston: It is the top
of the piston.
 Skirt: It is that portion of the piston
below the piston pin which is designed
to adsorb the side movements of the
piston.
 Engine components

6. Piston ring: It is a split

expansion ring, placed in the
groove of the piston. They are
usually made of cast iron or
pressed steel alloy . The
function of the ring are as
follows :
a) It forms a gas tight
combustion chamber for all
positions of piston.
b) It reduces contact area
between cylinder wall and
piston wall preventing friction
losses and excessive wear.
(i) Compression ring and (ii) Oil ring
 Engine components
i)Compression ring: Compression rings are usually
plain, single piece and are always placed in the grooves
of the piston nearest to the piston head. They prevent
leakage of gases from the cylinder and helps increasing
compression pressure inside the cylinder.
ii) Oil ring: Oil rings are grooved or slotted and are
located either in lowest groove above the piston pin or
in a groove above the piston skirt. They control the
distribution of lubrication oil in the cylinder and the
piston.

Compression ring Oil ring

 Engine components
7. Piston Pin: It is also called wrist pin or gudgeon
pin. Piston pin is used to join the connecting rod to the
piston.
8.Connecting rod: It is special type of rod, one end of
which is attached to the piston and the other end to the
crankshaft. It transmits the power of combustion to the
crankshaft and makes it rotate continuously. It is
usually made of drop forged steel.

Piston Pin

Connecting rod
 Engine components
9. Crankshaft: It is the main shaft of an engine which
converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotary motion of the flywheel. Usually the crankshaft is
made of drop forged steel or cast steel. The space that
supports the crankshaft in the cylinder block is called
main journal, whereas the part to which connecting rod
is attached is known as crank journal. Crankshaft is
provided with counter weights throughout its length to
have counter balance of the unit.
 Engine components
10.Flywheel: Flywheel is made of
cast iron. Its main functions are as
follows :
a) It stores energy during power
stroke and returns back the energy
during the idle strokes, providing a
uniform rotary motion of flywheel.
b) The rear surface of the flywheel
serves as one of the pressure
surfaces for the clutch plate.
c) Engine timing marks are usually
stamped on the flywheel, which
helps in adjusting the timing of the
engine.
d) Sometime the flywheel serves the
purpose of a pulley for transmitting
power.
 Engine components
11.Crankcase: The crankcase is that part of the engine
which supports and encloses the crankshaft and
camshaft. It provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil.
It also serves as a mounting unit for such accessories
as the oil pump, oil filter, starting motor and ignition
components. The upper portion of the crankcase is
usually integral with cylinder block. The lower part of
the crankcase is commonly called oil pan and is usually
made of cast iron or cast aluminum.
 Engine components
12.Camshaft: It is a shaft which raises and lowers the
inlet and exhaust valves at proper times. Camshaft is
driven by crankshaft by means of gears, chains or
sprockets. The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the
speed of the crankshaft in four stroke engine. Camshaft
operates the ignition timing mechanism, lubricating oil
pump and fuel pump.
 Engine components
13.Timing gear: Timing gear is a combination of gears,
one gear of which is mounted at one end of the
camshaft and the other gear at the crankshaft.
Camshaft gear is bigger in size than that of the
crankshaft gear and it has twice as many teeth as that
of the crankshaft gear. For this reason, this gear is
commonly called half time gear. Timing gear controls
the timing of ignition, timing of opening and closing of
valve as well as fuel injection timing.
 Engine components
14. Inlet manifold: It is that part of the engine through
which air or air-fuel mixture enters into the engine
cylinder. It is fitted by the side of the cylinder head.
15. Exhaust manifold: It is that part of the engine
through which exhaust gases go out of the engine
cylinder. It is capable of withstanding high temperature
of burnt gases. It is fitted by the side of the cylinder
head.
 Engine components
 16. Valves: A valve is a small mechanical device, used
for opening and closing the passage leading to the
engine cylinder. Inlet valve allows air or air fuel mixture
to go into the combustion chamber. The exhaust valve
allows burnt gases to go out of the cylinder. Each valve
is opened or closed once during each cycle.
 Valve operating mechanism consists of
several components such as:
1. Crank shaft gear
2. Cam shaft gear
3. Cam shaft
4. Tappet
5. Push rod
6. Rocker arm
 Valve timing diagram
 A valve timing diagram is a diagram of crank shaft
rotation on which the time of opening and closing of
inlet valve, exhaust valve are shown.
 Firing order
 Firing order: The sequence in which the power stroke
in each cylinder of an engine occurs is called firing
order.
 For four cylinder engine the firing orders are:
1-3-4-2 & 1-2-4-3
 For six cylinder engine the firing orders are:
1-4-2-6-3-5 or 1-5-3-6-2-4
 Firing interval (F.I)
 The interval between successive power strokes in
different cylinders of the engine is called firing interval.
 For four stroke engine, F.I= 720°
n
 For two stroke engine, F.I= 360°
n
n= no. of cylinder
Terminology connected with engine
power
 Top dead centre - When the piston is at the top of its
stroke, it is said to be at the top dead centre (TDC).
 Bottom dead centre - When the piston is at the bottom of
its stroke, it is said to be at its bottom dead centre (BDC).
 Scavenging-The process of removal of burnt or exhaust
gases from the engine cylinder is known as scavenging.
 Bore- Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder.

 Stroke -It is the linear distance traveled by the piston

from Top dead centre (TDC) to Bottom dead centre (BDC).
 Stroke-bore ratio -The ratio of length of stroke (L) and
diameter of bore (D) of the cylinder is called stroke-bore
ratio (L/D). In general, this ratio varies between 1 to 1.45
and for tractor engines, this ratio is about 1.25.
 Terminology connected with engine
power
 Compression ratio - It is the ratio of the volume of
the cylinder at the beginning of the compression stroke
to that at the end of compression stroke, i.e. ratio of
total cylinder volume to clearance volume.
 The Compression ratio of diesel engine varies from
14:1 to 22:1 and that of carburetor type engine (spark
ignition engine) varies from 4:1 to 8:1.
 Indicated power (IP) - It is the power generated in
the engine cylinder and received by the piston. It is the
power developed in a cylinder without accounting
frictional losses.
 Terminology connected with engine
power
 IP=PxLxAxNxC
60
IP= Indicated power, Watt
P= Mean effective pressure, N/m²
L= Stroke length, m
A= cross sectional area of piston, m²
N= Engine speed, rpm
C=n (for two stroke engine)
C=n/2 (for four stroke engine)
n= number of cylinder
 Terminology connected with engine
power
 Brake power (BP) - It is the power delivered by the
engine at the end of the crankshaft. It is measured by a
dynamometer.
 BP= 2лNT
60
BP= Brake power, watt
N= engine speed, rpm
T= Torque, N-m
 Power take-off horse power (PTO HP) - It is the
power delivered by a tractor through its PTO shaft. The
PTO hp is around 80-85% of tractor engine power.
 Terminology connected with engine
power
 Drawbar power- It is the power of a tractor measured at the
drawbar of a tractor. It is that power which is available for pulling
loads. It is around 50-55 % of engine power.
 Frictional power- It is the power required to run the engine at a
given speed without producing any useful work. It represents the
friction and pumping losses of an engine.
 Indicated power= Brake power + Frictional power
 Mean effective pressure (mep)- The mean effective
pressure is the average pressure exerted on the piston during
each power stroke. There are two kinds of mep: indicated mean
effective pressure (imep), and brake mean effective
pressure(bmep).
 Volumetric efficiency- It is the ratio of actual weight of air
introduced by the engine on the suction stroke to the theoretical
weight of air that should have been introduced by filling the
piston displacement volume with air at atmospheric pressure and
temperature. .
 Terminology connected with engine
power
 Piston displacement- It is the volume displaced by one
stroke of the piston. It is also known as swept volume.
Piston displacement= A x L
A= cross sectional area of piston
L= stroke length
 Displacement volume- It is the total swept volume of all
pistons during power strokes occurring in one minute.
Displacement volume = A x L x N x C
N= engine speed, rpm
C= n (for two stroke engine)
C= n/2 (for four stroke engine)
n= number of cylinder
 Terminology connected with engine
power
 Piston speed- It is the total length of travel of the
piston in a cylinder in one minute. i.e. 2 x L x N.
 Specific fuel consumption (SFC)- It is the quantity
of fuel consumed per kW-hr in an engine. Unit is kg/kW-
hr.
 Mechanical efficiency- It is the ratio of brake power
(bp) to indicated power (ip)
Mechanical efficiency= bp x 100
ip
 Problems
1. Calculate the brake power of a 4 stroke 4 cylinder I.C
engine, having following dimensions:
a) cylinder bore = 125 mm
b) Stroke length = 150 mm
c) Crank shaft speed = 1000 rpm
d) Friction power = 20 kW
e) Mean effective pressure = 700 kPa
f) No. of cylinder = 4 [Ans: 22.95 kW]
2. Calculate the brake power of a 2 cylinder 4 stroke cycle
I.C engine 12x15 cm. The mean effective pressure is 700
kPa and speed of crankshaft is 1200 rpm. The
mechanical efficiency is 75%.
[Ans: 17.81 kW]

Contd…
3. A four cylinder 4 stroke engine having cylinder bore 7.5 cm
and stroke length 10 cm develops 15 kW at 1650 rpm.
Assuming a mechanical efficiency of 85% find indicated
power and mean effective pressure. [Ans: 17.64 kW,
725.97 kPa]
4. A 4 cylinder 4 stroke gas engine has cylinder diameter of 25
cm, stroke-bore ratio is 1.8, clearance volume 4500 cm³,
engine speed 240 rev/min, mean effective pressure 700 kPa
and mechanical efficiency is 75%. Calculate a) IP, b) BP, c)
Compression ratio, d)swept volume. [Ans: 123.7 kW,
92.77 kW, 5.9, 22089 cm³]
5. A diesel engine was tested with a prony brake, having a tare
of 22 kg. the brake drum was 60 cm long. At a certain setting
of fuel pump the engine ran 1140 rpm and the gross weight
on the brake scale showed 222 kg. Find a) power of the
engine, b) crank shaft torque. [Ans: 140.39 kW,
1176 N-m]

Contd…
6. A diesel engine transmits 25 kW at the end of the crankshaft,
moving at 1650 rpm, find the torque exerted by the piston.
[Ans: 144.75 N-m]
7. Calculate the compression ratio and clearance volume of an
engine whose dimensions are 100 x 120 mm and length of
clearance space at the TDC being 8 mm. [Ans: 16:1,
62.8cm³]
8. A diesel engine operating at 2000 rpm has a single cylinder.
During compression stroke, the fuel injection starts 20°
before TDC and ends at the TDC. Calculate the duration in
seconds the fuel injection takes place in the cylinder. [Ans:
1/600 sec]
9. Calculate the efficiency of a four stroke gas engine, working
at constant volume cycle of stroke length 45 cm, piston dia 30
cm and clearance volume 1140 cc. [Ans:41.3%]
10. A diesel engine has a stroke length of 25 cm and cylinder dia
of 15 cm. the clearance volume is 400cm³. Fuel injection
takes place at constant pressure for 5% of the stroke. Find
the efficiency of the machine. [Ans: