Wave Optics: Principle of Superposition-Interference of light - Interference in thin films by reflection -

Determination of the wavelength of a given monochromatic light and refractive index of a liquid - Applications of
Interference, TIR-Optical fiber. Diffraction – Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit, double slit and Diffraction
grating (qualitative). Polarization – Polarization by double refraction – Nicol’s Prism – Applications of Polarization.

Introduction
In the 17th century, the properties of light were explained by Sir Isaac Newton and Christian Huygens.
Newton has explained the properties of light by introducing corpuscular theory (particle nature of light) in 1675.
It explains phenomena like reflection, refraction, and dispersion of light but, it fails to explain interference,
diffraction, polarization, photoelectric effect, and double refraction.
In 1679, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to Huygens wave theory, each
point on the wavefront is to be considered as a source of secondary wavelets. It explains reflection, refraction,
dispersion, double refraction, diffraction, interference, and polarization properties of light but it fails to explain,
the photoelectric effect, black body radiation etc.
The wave theory was not readily accepted primarily because of Newton’s authority and also because light
could travel through a vacuum and it was felt that a wave would always require a medium to propagate from one
point to the other. However, it was conclusively proven that light is in fact a wave phenomenon when Thomas
Young carried out his well-known interference experiment in 1801. The only major difficulty was that since it was
thought that a wave required a medium for its propagation, how could light waves propagate through vacuum.
This was explained when Maxwell put forward his famous electromagnetic theory of light. Maxwell had developed
a set of equations describing the laws of electricity and magnetism and using these equations he derived what is
known as the wave equation from which he predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Interference of light:
The best evidence for the wave nature of light is the interference phenomenon. Thomas Young
experimentally demonstrated this in 1801, through a double-slit experiment. Due to interference, we will observe
many light phenomena in day-to-day life, such as multiple colours on soap bubbles as well as on oil film when
viewed under sunlight. The interference concept is explained on the basis of the superposition of the wave’s
concept. The phenomenon of addition or superposition of two coherent light waves which produces an increase
in intensity (or amplitude) at some points and a decrease at some other points is called interference of light.
The two light sources that are responsible for producing interference must be coherent sources.

What is coherence?
The two light sources are said to be coherent if the two light waves are in the same phase or have a
constant phase difference. In practice, the two independent sources cannot be coherent. But for experimental
purposes, the two virtual sources formed from a single source can act as coherent sources. There are two methods
of obtaining these sources.

i. Division of wavefront: In these cases, a wavefront coming from a source is divided into two parts. For example,
in the case of Young’s double slit experiment, the primary wavefront incident on the double slit is divided to two
parts. Another example is Fresnel’s biprism in which a biprism divides the wavefront into two parts and forms two
virtual coherent sources to produce interference.
ii. Division of amplitude: Here the amplitude of a wave emitted by a source of light is divided into two parts where
one part is reflected and the other part is transmitted. These reflected or transmitted rays superpose and produce
interference. In the case of thin film, the incident light is partly reflected at the top surface of the film and the
other part is refracted. The refracted light is again reflected at the bottom surface of the film and comes out of
the film parallel to the first reflected ray. These to rays are coherent and they superpose to produce interference.
Other examples are Newton’s rings, Michelson’s interferometer, colors in thin films etc.

Types of Interference:
i. Constructive Interference: When crest of one wave falls on the crest of another wave, the resultant amplitude
is the sum of the amplitudes of two waves and intensity is increased. Hence bright fringe is formed and it is known
as constructive interference.
Condition: The constructive interference occurs when the path difference between the two waves is equal to the
integral multiple of wave length λ.
Path difference = mλ, where m=0,1,2,3…….

ii) Destructive Interference: When crest of one wave falls on the trough of another wave, the resultant amplitude
is the difference of the amplitudes of two waves and intensity is decreased. Hence dark fringe is formed and it is
known as destructive interference.
Condition: The destructive interference occurs when the path difference between the two waves is equal to the
odd integral multiple of λ/2.
𝜆
Path difference = (2𝑚 + 1) where m = 0, 1, 2, …..
2
Conditions for sustained interference:
Q. What are the conditions for sustained interference?
1. The two sources should be coherent. i.e. two superposing waves must be in phase.
2. The two sources should be monochromatic, i.e. the two sources must emit continuous waves of same
frequency and wavelength.
3. The amplitudes of the two interfering (superposing) waves should be equal or nearly equal. The two waves
must be traveling in the same direction with the same velocity
4. The two sources should be narrow.
5. The distance between the two sources should be small.
6. The distance between sources and screen should be large.
7. The background should be dark.

Phase difference and path difference

2𝜋
Phase difference = 𝜆
Path difference, or
λ
Path difference = 2𝜋
Phase difference
If the path difference between the two waves is λ, the phase difference is equal to 2π.

principle of superposition
Q. Explain the principle of superposition.
When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement at any point is
due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to individual waves.

Let y1 is the displacement of the particle of first wave in a given direction and y2 is the displacement of
the particle in second wave in the absence of the first wave. Therefore, according to principle of superposition,
the resultant displacement is R = y1 ± y2
 If the displacements are in the same direction, then R = y1 + y2.
 If the displacements are in opposite direction, then R = y1 - y2.
Consider two light waves of same amplitude ‘a’ and same frequency traveling in a medium in the same direction.
y1 = a sin ωt ......(1)
and y1 = a sin (ωt+δ) ......(2)
where ω is the angular frequency and δ is the phase difference between the two waves.
The displacement of any particle in the medium due to these waves at an instant of time ‘t’ is given by the principle
of superposition, the resultant displacement of the particle is,
y = y1 + y2 = a sinωt + a sin (ωt+δ)
a sinωt + a sinωt cosδ + a cosωt sinδ
a sinωt (1 + cos δ) + a cosωt sinδ
let, a (1 + cosδ) = R cosθ ………..(3) and,
a sinδ = R sinθ …………(4)
then y = R sinωt cosθ + R cosωt sinθ
= R sin (ωt + θ) ………..(5)

Equation (5) represents the resultant wave that is also simple harmonic of the same frequency. R is the amplitude
of the resultant wave and θ is the phase difference between the resultant wave and the first wave.

Squaring and adding equations (3) and (4)

a2 (1 + cosδ)2 + a2 sin2δ = R2 cos2θ + R2 sin2θ
R2 = 2a2 + 2a2 cosδ ………….(6)
R2 = 2a2 (1 + cosδ)
= 2a2 (2cos2 δ/2)
= 4a2 cos2 δ/2
As the intensity of light I α R2, thus the resultant intensity of light due to the superposition of waves is
given by I = 4a2 cos2 δ/2 ……….(7)

Conditions for constructive interference

The interference is said to be constructive when the net amplitude is maximum and the resulting intensity of light
is also maximum due to the superposition of two waves. Since I  R2, I will be maximum at the points in the region
of interference where R is maximum.
The intensity of light due to interference is given by I = 4a2 cos2 δ/2.

Case 1: Phase difference:

The intensity will be maximum if the phase difference δ = 2mπ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3 ….
δ = 0, 2π, 4π, 6π…… i.e even multiples of π.
Case 2: Path difference:
The intensity will be maximum if the path difference x between the waves is given by
𝜆 𝜆
𝒙= 2𝜋
∗𝛿 = 2𝜋
. 2𝑚𝜋 = 𝒎𝝀 where m = 0,1, 2, …..
x = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ…. i.e integral multiples of λ
Hence, The condition for constructive interference is that the phase difference between two light waves must
be even multiples of  or the path difference must be integral multiples of . The maximum value of intensity is
given by Imax = 4a2.

Conditions for destructive interference

The interference is said to be destructive, when the net amplitude is minimum and the resulting intensity of light
is also minimum due to the superposition of two waves. Since I  R2, I will be minimum at the points in the region
of interference where R is minimum.
The intensity of light due to interference is given by I = 4a2 cos2 δ/2.

Case 1: Phase difference:

The intensity will be minimum if the phase difference δ = (2m+1) π where m = 0, 1, 2, 3 ….
δ = π, 3π, 5π, 7π…… i.e odd multiples of π.
Case 2: Path difference:
The intensity will be maximum if the path difference x between the waves is given by
𝜆 𝜆 𝝀
𝒙= 2𝜋
∗𝛿 = 2𝜋
. (2𝑚 + 1)𝜋 = (𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏) 𝟐 where m = 0, 1, 2, …..
x = λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2 …. i.e odd integral multiples of λ/2
Hence, The condition for destructive interference is that the phase difference between two light waves must be
odd multiples of  or the path difference must be odd integral multiples of /2. The minimum value of intensity
is given by Imin = 0.

Interference in thin films by reflection: (Cosine law):

Q. Explain the interference due to uniform thin films by reflected light or derive cosine law.
Principle: - The formation of colours in thin films can explained using the phenomenon of interference. In this
example, the formation of an interference pattern is by the division of amplitude. Consider a thin film of uniform
thickness ‘t’ and refractive index μ. Let a monochromatic light ray AB be incident on the upper surface of the film
with an angle ‘i’. The incidence light ray AB is divided into two light rays, ray-1 (BC) and ray-2 (EF) by the division
of amplitude principle. These two light rays BC and EF are parallel and superimpose and produce interference.
The intensity of interference fringe depends on the path difference between the ray-1 and ray-2.
 (n+1) is also an integer so n+1=n

[Note: Colours of thin films: When a thin film (Soap bubble) is exposed to a white light source beautiful colours
are observed. The incident light will split up by reflection at the top and bottom surfaces of the film. These splitted
rays interfere with each other and produces interference pattern and is responsible for colours. We have 2μt cos
r = (2n+1) λ/2 for bright fringe and 2μt cos r = n λ for dark fringe. Hence bright and dark fringes depend on μ, t
and r. Here t and r are made constant but μ changes with wavelength. At a particular point of the film and at a
particular position of the eye, only certain wavelengths (colours) satisfy the condition for bright fringe. Hence only
those colours appear on thin film. The colours which satisfy dark fringe condition are absent. If position of the eye
changes, different set of colours are observed. We know that the conditions for bright and dark fringes in
transmitted light are reversed than that in reflection. Hence colours which appear in reflected light disappears in
transmitted light.]
Newton’s Rings:
Q. What are Newton’s rings? Explain the formation of Newton’s rings. Write the conditions for maxima and
minima?
When a Plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air film of gradually
increasing thickness is formed between the two. At the point of contact, the thickness of the film is zero. If
monochromatic light is incident normally and the film is viewed in reflected light, we observe alternate bright and
dark rings around the point of contact. These rings are known as Newton’s rings.
Principle: The formation of Newton’s rings is due to the phenomenon of interference. In this example,
the formation of an interference pattern is obtained by the division of amplitude.

Experimental arrangement
1. The experimental arrangement of Newton’s rings is shown in the figure.
2. The Plano-convex lens (L) of a large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface on the glass plate (P).
The Plano-convex lens touches the glass plate at O.
3. A monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens with the help of glass plate G kept at 45o to the
incident monochromatic light.
4. A part of the light is reflected by the curved surface of the lens ‘L’ and a part of light is transmitted and partly
reflected back by the upper surface of the plane glass plate P. These reflected rays interfere and give rise to
an interference pattern in the form of circular fringes. These rings are seen through a travelling microscope.

Explanation of Newton’s rings

Newton’s rings are formed due to the interference between the light rays reflected from the lower surface of the
lens and the upper surface of the glass plate (or the top and bottom surfaces of the air film). Let a vertical light
ray AB be partially reflected from the curved surface of the plano convex lens without phase change and partially
transmitted light ray BC is again reflected at C on the glass plate with an additional phase change of π or path
difference λ/2.
The path difference between the two rays = 2μt cos r + λ/2
For air film μ=1 and for normal incidence r = 0, so The path difference = 2t + λ/2
At the point of contact t=0, the path difference is λ/2, i.e., the reflected and incidence light are out of phase and
destructive interference occurs. So the center fringe is always dark.
Constructive interference (or Bright fringe)
General condition: path difference = nλ
2t + λ/2 = nλ
2t = (2n-1) λ/2, where n = 0,1,2,….
 Destructive interference (or Dark fringe)
General condition: path difference = (2n+1) λ/2
2t + λ/2 = (2n+1) λ/2
2t = nλ , where n = 0,1,2,….

Note:
 The diameter of nth dark ring is 𝐷 = √4𝑛𝜆𝑅
 Suppose a liquid is taken in between the lens and glass plate having refractive index μ, then the diameter
√4𝑛𝜆𝑅
of the dark nth ring is 𝐷 = 𝜇

Applications of Newton’s rings:

1. Determination of wave length of sodium light using Newton’s rings:
The wavelength of the light can be calculated by known radius of curvature of the lens and measured radii of the
rings. Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens and λ is the wavelength of the light used.

2. Determination of refractive index of a liquid using Newton’s rings:

The refractive index of the liquid can be calculated by measured diameter of the rings.
Applications of interference:
Q. What are the applications of interference?
Interference phenomenon is used to
1. Determine the wavelength of light.
2. Find the difference in wavelengths of two spectral lines having small separation.
3. Find the thickness of transparent materials.
4. Determine the refractive index of transparent solids, liquids and gases.
5. Find the velocity of light (Michelson interferometer experiment).
6. Test the optical flatness of surfaces.
7. Find the reflecting power of the lens and prism surfaces.
 DIFFRACTION
Introduction:
The wave nature of light is first confirmed by the phenomenon of interference. Further it is confirmed by the
phenomenon of diffraction. The word ‘diffraction’ is derived from the Latin word diffractus which means break to
piece. It was first observed by Francesco Gremaldi. When the light waves encounter an obstacle, they bend round
the edges of the obstacle. The bending is predominant when the size of the obstacle is comparable with the
wavelength of light. The bending of light waves around the edges of an obstacle is diffraction.

Q. Define diffraction. Give examples of diffraction.

The phenomenon of bending of light round the sharp corners of obstacles and spreading of light waves into the
geometrical shadow of an obstacle placed in the path of light is called Diffraction. This effects can be observed
only when the size of the obstacle is very small and comparable to the wavelength of light.
The effects of diffraction can be seen in everyday life. Ex:
1. The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form a rainbow pattern when looking
at a disk.
2. The hologram on a book or debit card.
3. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around the sun or the
moon.
4. A shadow of a solid object using light from a compact source shows small fringes near its edges.

Explanation: Consider light waves diverging from a narrow slit ‘S’ illuminated by a monochromatic source ‘O’ and
passing towards an obstacle AB. A small portion of light bends around the edge forming a geometrical shadow on
the screen which is not sharp. Outside the shadow parallel to its edge, several bright and dark bands are observed.
Thus when light falls on obstacles whose size is comparable with the wavelength of light, the light bends around
the corners of the obstacles or aperture and enters into the geometrical shadow. It was found that diffraction
produces bright and dark fringes known as diffraction bands or fringes. According to Fresnel, the diffraction
phenomenon is due to the mutual interference of secondary wavelets originating from various points of the same
primary wavefront which are not blocked off by the obstacle. Hence diffraction is also known as self-interference.

Types of diffraction:
Q. What are the types of diffraction?
The diffraction phenomena are classified into two.
Fresnel diffraction: - In this diffraction, the source and screen are separated at a finite distance and since the
source and screen are separated at a finite distance, lenses are not used. The incidence wavefront must be
spherical or cylindrical. This diffraction can be studied in the direction of propagation of light.

Fraunhofer diffraction: - In this diffraction, the source and screen are separated at infinite distances and since the
source and screen are separated at infinite distances, lenses are used. In this diffraction the incidence wave front
must be plane. This diffraction can be studied in any direction.
Differences between Fresnel and fraunhofer diffraction.
Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction
The source and the screen are placed at finite distances The source and the screen are placed at infinite
from the obstacle-producing diffraction. distances from the obstacle producing diffraction.
No lenses are used for making the rays parallel or Lenses are used for making the rays
convergent. parallel or convergent.
The incident wavefront is either spherical or cylindrical. The incident wavefront is a plane.
Either a point source (or) an illuminated narrow slit is An extended source at an infinite distance is used.
used.
This is also called near-field diffraction. This is also called far-field diffraction.
It is a general approach. It is a simplified approach.
The mathematical treatment is quite complicated. Mathematical treatment is simple.
Examples: Diffraction at a straight edge, thin wire, Examples: Diffraction at a single slit, double slit
narrow slit, a small hole etc., and n slits (grating) etc.,

Difference between diffraction and interference.

Diffraction Interference
It is due to the interaction of light waves coming from It is due to the interaction of light waves coming
different parts of the same wavefront. It is also called as from two different wavefronts originating from the
self-interference. same source (i.e. coherent sources).
Diffraction bands decrease in their width as the order Interference bands are of equal width i.e. all are
increases. equally spaced.
The bright fringes are of varying intensity. All the bright fringes are of the same intensity.
Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark. Hence Points of minimum intensity are perfectly dark.
fringes will not appear with contrast. Hence fringes will appear with contrast.

Fraunhofer single slit diffraction:

Q. Explain Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit.
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through an aperture or around objects. It occurs
when the size of the aperture or obstacle is of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the incident
wave. For very small aperture sizes, the vast majority of the wave is blocked. For large apertures, the wave passes
by or through the obstacle without any significant diffraction.

Single-slit diffraction pattern: The diffraction pattern made by waves passing through a slit of width ‘a’ larger
than ‘λ’ can be understood by imagining a series of point sources all in phase along the width of the slit. The waves
moving straight toward the screen (at Po) make the center of the pattern bright or maximum. Central maxima are
bright because, these waves are all in phase and they have zero path difference (travelled an equal distance from
the slit).
Consider a monochromatic source of light that passes through a slit AB of width a as shown in the figure.
At point P on the screen, the secondary waves interfere destructively and produce a dark fringe. Let D be the
distance between the slit and the screen, and y be the distance between point P and point O, the center of the
screen. AC is perpendicular to BP. Let θ be the angle of diffraction.
The path difference between the two rays AP and BP is BP – AP = BC
In the right-angled triangle BCA,
sin θ = BC/AB
BC = AB sin θ = a sin θ
a sin θ = λ i.e, path difference b/w the waves is λ.
First-order minima (dark):
Let the path difference between the waves from A and B is λ.
Now divide the slit ‘a’ into two equal halves, then the path difference between rays from A and the ray from
below a/2 is λ/2, hence they are π/2 out of phase and they interfere destructively. This happens to all
consecutive pairs of waves.
a/2 sin θ = λ/2
a sin θ = λ
θ = λ/a (if θ is very less, angle approximation)
similarly at different angles λ/a, 2λ/a, 3λ/a, 4λ/a,………nλ/a the dark points appears.

First-order maxima (bright):

If the path difference between two waves from A and B is 3λ/2 then the bright point will be formed.
Divide the slit into three parts, the waves from the first two parts (two third of the slit) interfere destructively,
whereas waves from 3rd part (one-third of the slit) reach the screen, which forms the bright spot.
The bright spots papers at 3λ/2a, 5λ/2a, 7λ/2a,………..(2n+1)/2a.

These results lead to the diffraction pattern shown below, which can be represented as a graph of the intensity of
the diffracted wave against angle.
Fraunhofer diffraction by a double slit: Young's Double Slits (qualitative)

Since S0 is assumed to be a point source of monochromatic light, that falls on the two slits S1 and S2 which are at
the same distance from S0. The slits S1 and S2 acts as secondary Huygens wavelets and are behave like coherent.
The coherent waves fall on the screen are in phase, have same amplitudes and frequency. When light passes
through narrow slits, the slits act as sources of coherent waves and light spreads out as semicircular waves.
Waves coming out from the slits are in phase (crest to crest), but they may end up out of phase (crest to trough)
at the screen if the paths differ in length by half a wavelength, interfering destructively. If the paths differ by a
whole wavelength, then the waves arrive in phase (crest to crest) at the screen, interfering constructively.

More generally, if the path length difference (d sin θ) between the two waves is any half-integral number of
wavelengths [(1/2)λ, (3/2)λ, (5/2)λ, etc.], then destructive interference occurs. Similarly, if the path length
difference is any integral number of wavelengths (λ, 2λ, 3λ, etc.), then constructive interference occurs.

Constructive interference is seen when path difference (𝛿) is zero or integral multiple of the wavelength (λ).
(Constructive interference) 𝛿 = dSin𝜃 = mλ, m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±5, ……
The Zeroth order maximum (m=0) corresponds to the central bright fringe, here 𝜃=0. The first order maxima
(m=±1) (bright fringe) are on either side the central fringe.

Similarly, when 𝛿 is an odd integral multiple of λ/2, the resultant fringes will be 1800 out of phase, thus, forming a
dark fringe.
(Destructive interference) 𝛿 = dSin𝜃 =(2m+1)λ/2, m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±5, ……

Engineering Applications of diffraction

1. Crystal-structural study by X-ray diffraction.
2. The study of reconstruction of the hologram.
3. In design of holographic memory would greatly extend the capabilities of computer memory systems.
4. To Find the wavelength of the light source
5. Study the design of 3D images as molecular structures.
 POLARIZATION
Introduction
Interference and diffraction can be explained by means of wave nature of light. But these two phenomena could
not reveal the nature of light whether it is longitudinal or transverse. Light is an electromagnetic wave with electric
field and magnetic field vectors perpendicular to each other and vibrating perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Depending on the way that the electric fields in light waves oscillate, we classify waves into polarized
and unpolarized light.

Unpolarized light: The ordinary light is also an unpolarized light. Sunlight, or light emitted by a filament lamp are
unpolarized. This means that the oscillations of light waves are not all in a single direction. Hence ordinary light is
symmetrical about its direction of propagation and it is represented by a star as shown in figure. Light may be
polarized by passing it through a sheet of commercial material called Polaroid, invented by E.H. Land in 1938. A
sheet of Polaroid transmits only the component of light polarized along a particular direction and absorbs the
component perpendicular to that direction.

Polarized light
Polarization: It is the phenomenon in which the vibration of light waves is are restricted in one direction.
Hence Polarized light have vibration in a single direction. Typically, the direction of oscillation of the electric field
is considered as the direction of oscillation of wave. The electric field of the unpolarized light moves in all
directions.
For polarized light, the x– and y– components of the electric field have a constant phase difference between them.
In natural light, millions of transverse vibrations occur in all the directions perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave.

Types of polarized light

1. Plane Polarized Light: If the vibrations of electric filed are confined to single plane, the light is said to be plane
polarized. If the direction of vibrations is parallel to plane of the paper, then it is represented by straight line
arrows as shown (a). The plane polarized light is called vertical linear polarization. If the directions of vibrations
are perpendicular to the plane of paper, it is represented by a dot as shown in fig (b). It is called horizontal
liner polarization.

2. Circularly Polarized Light: The light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of an electric field and magnetic
field of equal magnitudes, vibrating perpendicular to each other, having a phase difference of π/2 but rotates
 about the direction of propagation such that it sweeps a circular helix in the plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, then light is said to be circularly polarized.
3. Elliptically Polarized Light: The electric field of light consists of two light waves of unequal magnitudes,
vibrating perpendicular to each other, having a phase difference π/2 but rotating about the direction of
propagation such that it sweeps an ellipse in the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, then light
is said to be elliptically polarized.

Production of plane-polarized light:

Some of the methods for the production of plane-polarized light are
1. Reflection, 2. Refraction, 3. Double refraction 4. Selective absorption in crystals and 5. Scattering.

Optic axis:- An imaginary line passing through one of the blunt corners and making equal angles with all three
faces is called an optic axis.
• Optic axis is not only an imaginary line but it is a direction.
• Any line parallel to the optic axis also acts as an optic axis.
• It represents a direction that there is no birefringence phenomenon when a light travels along this
direction

Principle Section: A Plane which contains the optic axis and is perpendicular to two opposite faces is called a
principle section. Crystals having one optic axis are called uniaxial crystals. Eg: quartz and calcite. A crystal having
two optic axes is called biaxial crystal. Eg: mica

Double refraction (Birefringence): The phenomenon of getting two refracted beams instead of the one
refracted beam as in the case of glass, when a beam of monochromatic light is allowed to pass through a
calcite or quartz crystal, is called double refraction or birefringence.
When an object is observed through a calcite crystal, two images are seen. If the crystal is rotated about the
incident ray as an axis, it is found that one of the images remains stationary while the other rotates around the
stationary image. The stationary image is known as an ordinary image while the other is known as an extraordinary
image. The ray giving rise to the ordinary image is called the ordinary ray and the ray giving rise to the
extraordinary image is called the extraordinary ray.

The ordinary ray obeys laws of refraction while the extraordinary ray does not. The refractive index of a
doubly refracting crystal is a constant for ordinary ray where as it varies with the angle of incidence for
extraordinary ray. There is one direction, called the optic axis, along which the ordinary and extraordinary rays
have the same speed, corresponding to the direction for which vo = ve. The difference in speed for the two rays
is a maximum in the direction perpendicular to the optic axis.

It has been found that both ordinary and extraordinary rays are plane polarized with their vibrations being at right
angles to each other. Uniaxial crystals have one refractive index for light polarized along the optic axis (µe) and
another for light polarized in either of the two directions perpendicular to it (µo). Light polarized along the optic
axis is called the extraordinary ray, and light polarized perpendicular to it is called the ordinary ray. These
polarization directions are the crystal’s “principal axes”.

For a calcite crystal, ve is greater than vo. Therefore, µe is smaller than µo. µe=1.486, µo=1.658.
For a quartz crystal, vo is greater than ve. Therefore, µo is smaller than µe. µo=1.544, µe=1.553.

Nicol’s Prism
William Nicol developed the first polarizing prism, called the Nicol prism. When a beam of light is transmitted
through a calcite crystal, it breaks up into two rays: (1) the ordinary ray which has its vibrations perpendicular to
the principal section of the crystal and (2) the extraordinary ray which has its vibrations parallel to the principal
section. The Nicol prism is made in such a way that it eliminates one of the two rays by total internal reflection. It
is generally found that the ordinary ray is eliminated and, only the extraordinary ray is transmitted through the
prism. So, it is an optical device made from calcite for producing and analyzing in the form of ordinary and
extraordinary plane polarized lights is called nicol prism.

Construction and working of Nicol prism:

Let a calcite crystal with principle section ABCD whose length 3 times with breadth as shown in fig. The end faces
of AD and BC are cut in such a way that they make angles of 680 and 1120 in the principle axis instead of 710 and
1090. The crystal cut into two parts along AC corners and well polish the faces. Now the two parts are pasted with
Canada balsam as a single crystal. Canada balsam has a refractive index lies between ordinary and extraordinary
rays, so it works as a rarer and denser medium to fulfil total internal reflection. [Canada balsam whose index of
refraction n= 1.55 lies between the indices no=1.6583 and ne=1.4864 of calcite].
When unpolarized light enters the crystal it splits into ordinary and extraordinary rays. when ordinary ray
going from calcite to Canada balsam it feels like an optically denser medium to a rarer medium. As the length of
the crystal is sufficient the ordinary ray has an incident angle at Canada balsam is greater than the critical angle
then it undergoes total internal reflection and emerges from Nicol's prism along the side of BC as a polarized O-
ray. On the other, the extraordinary ray travels through Canada balsam and crystal as a polarized light emerges at
the side of CD.

Nicol’s prism as Analyzer and Polarizer:

In order to produce and analyze the plane polarized light, we have to arrange two nicol prisms. When a beam of
unpolarised light is incident on the Nicol prism, it emerges as a plane polarised beam, which has vibrations parallel
to the principal section. This prism is therefore known as a polariser.
If this polarised beam falls on another parallel Nicol prism N2, whose principal section is parallel to that
of N1, then the incident beam will behave as an E-ray inside the Nicol prism N2 and get completely transmitted
through it. This way the intensity of emerged light will be maximum. Now the Nicol prism N2 is rotated about its
axis, the intensity of emerging light decreases and becomes zero at 90° rotations of the second prism. In this
position, the vibrations of the E-ray become perpendicular to the principal section of the analyzer (Nicol prism
N2). Hence, this ray behaves as an O-ray for prism N2 and it is totally internally reflected by the Canada balsam
layer. This fact can be used for detecting the plane polarized light and the Nicol prism N2 acts as an analyzer. If
the Nicol prism N2 is further rotated about its axis, the intensity of the light emerging from it increases and
becomes maximum for the position when a principal section of N2 is again parallel to that of N1. Hence, the Nicol
prisms N1 and N2 acts as polarizer and analyzer, respectively.
Applications of LASER
1. Laser welding:
Principle: The ability of the laser beams to concentrate large power in a small volume (i.e., focussibility) is utilized
for welding of metal parts. Ruby Laser and CO2 laser of power 107 W and  of 10 m is used for welding.
Working:
1. Laser beam is focused to the place to be welded, the material gets melted
because of the generated heat.
2. Due to high intensity heat produced by the beam, the impurities in the
material (such as oxides) float upon the surface.
3. After cooling the inner material becomes homogeneous solid and makes it a
strong joint.
Advantages:
• Single pass weld penetration up to 3/4” in steel
• High Travel speed.
• Materials need not be conductive.
• Low heat input produces low distortion.
• Does not require a vacuum and filler metal.
• Can even weld location which is difficult to reach.

2. Laser cutting
Principle: The material to be removed in laser cutting can be accomplished by melting and blowing out the molten
metal. For blowing out the molten metal, a very high velocity gas jet of inert gas or O2 is used.
Working
1. The laser focusing part is surrounded by a nozzle into which oxygen gas is fed.
2. A jet of the gas is issued through the nozzle right at the spot where laser
beam is focused.
3. The tiny splinters along with the molten part of the metal will be blown away
by the oxygen jet.
4. The combustion of the gas burns the metal thus reducing the power
requirement for cutting.
5. The blowing action increases the depth and the speed of cutting.
6. This process is also known as “Gas-assisted laser beam machining”.
Application of laser cutting:
1. Laser cutting is employed in the tailoring industry where mass production is employed.
2. In the fabrication of spacecraft.
3. In the process of production of microelectronic components.
Advantages of laser cutting:
1. The laser cutting process increases production rates.
2. The quality of cutting is very high.
3. There will be no thermal damage or chemical change when cutting is done in an inert atmosphere.

3. Laser drilling:
Principle: The principle of laser drilling is mainly to heat the metal to its boiling point and vaporizes it or remove it
by high pressure vapour. Working: When high power pulsed lasers are projected onto the metal spot a vapour
key hole surrounded with molten metal is formed. With continued heating by laser beam, the metal vapourises
and atoms ionize. i.e., plasma will be formed.
4. Measurement of pollutants in the atmosphere:
Lasers are used for the remote probing at the atmosphere, including the measurement of traces of pollutant gases,
temperature, water vapour concentrations at ranges of 8-15 km away. The pollutants in the atmosphere include
carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, sulphur dioxide Freon, ethylene, vinyl chloride, dust, smoke, fly ash etc. For
measurement of pollutants, laser is used as LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging).
Construction:
1. In the LIDAR System, the transmitting part consists of pulsed laser.
2. The receiving part consists of
a) a photodetector which converts optical energy to electrical energy.
b) a narrow–band filter which cuts off the background noises and extraneous light.
c) a data processor which gives out information regarding distance, dimensions etc.
3. Retro reflector to reflect the laser beam.

Working
 While measurements are carried out, the laser beam undergoes scattering at the pollutant places in the
atmosphere due to high concentrations of dust particles.
 The backscattered light is received by the photodetector.
 The distance of congestion from the measuring station is calculated on the basis of the time delay between
the pulse emission and the reception of backscattered light.
 The variation in frequency of the transmitted and received laser provides the information (by Doppler’s
principle) about the velocity and direction of motion of pollutants.
 To know the compositions of the pollutants Raman Back–scattering method is employed.

(Note: Raman Back – Scattering method - In this method, the spectrum of the received light after being scattered
by the pollutants is studied. Since laser is highly monochromatic we expect only one line in the spectrum.
However due to Raman Scattering, not one line but several lines are seen in the spectrum. Among these lines,
there will be a line of high intensity corresponding to the incident light wavelength as expected. The other lines
at low intensity lie symmetrically to this line. These additional spectral lines are called side bands and their
frequencies result when the oscillating frequencies of the molecules of the pollutants are added to or subtracted
from the incident light frequency. Since the oscillating frequencies of different types of molecules will be different,
different gases produce different side bands. The shift in frequencies are termed Raman Shifts.)