DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF COST-EFFECTIVE

COMPOSTING SOLUTION FOR EASY

DECOMPOSINGOF HOME WASTES

PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

AKHASH.K
PRAKASH.D
SAKTHIVEL.B
SYED SHAHUL HAMEED.M.J

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

KOVILVENNI

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2024
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI - 600 025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF
COST-EFFECTIVE COMPOSTING SOLUTION FOR EASY
DECOMPOSING OF HOME WASTES is the bonafide work of
“AKHASH.K (820420114005), PRAKASH.D (820420114023),
SAKTHIVEL.B (820420114027), SYED SHAHUL HAMEED.M.J
(8204201140315)” who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. K.SIVARAMAKRISHNAN, Ph.D. Mr.P.MURALIGOPAL,M.E.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

Department Mechanical Engineering Department Mechanical Engineering

Anjalai Ammal Mahalingam Anjalai Ammal Mahalingam

Engineering College, Engineering College,

Kovilvenni, Thiruvarur-614403 Kovilvenni, Thiruvarur-614403

Submitted for the design and fabrication viva voice on...................................

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we praise the almighty from the depth of own heart
who has given us unfailing source of strength, comfort and inspiration in
completion of this project work.

We are very glad to offer respectable and humble gratitude to our

principal Dr.S.N.RAMASAMY.,Phd., for giving permission to carry out the
project work in our institute.

We express our heartily thanks to our HOD (Mechanical Engineering)

Dr.K.SIVARAMAKRISHNAN.,Ph.D., for encouraging us every point of
time.

In addition to that, we express our sincere gratitude to our project guide

Mr.P.MURALIGOPAL.,M.E., (ASSOPROFESSOR/ Mechanical
Engineering) who sets vision and guide us from the beginning until the end
through the project. In a path to attain success, and boosted our moral whenever
we faced any problem.

Finally, we are very grateful to express our sincere thanks to our project
coordinator Dr.J.KINGSTONBARNABAS.,M.E., (ASSTPROFESSOR
/Mechancal Engineering) who has given more contributions and valuable
assistance in the fabrication work.

We take this opportunity to thank all staff members and non-teaching

staffs of Mechanical Engineering Department, friends and persons who are
under the scene but have helped in the successful fulfillment of this project.
 ABSTRACT

 The primary objective is to develop a Household waste Decomposer that not

only composting the kitchen waste but also ensures quick decomposition while
minimizing odors.
 Our design integrates innovative features, such as a compact and user-friendly
composting unit, utilizing a controlled aeration system to accelerate the
composting process. This aeration system promotes optimal conditions for
microbial activity, enhancing the breakdown of organic matter
 Another one method added to using decomposer sand. Decomposition sand is a
biological process that includes the physical breakdown and biochemical
transformation of complex organic molecules of dead material into simpler
organic and inorganic molecules There are two effective system used in
Household waste Decomposer
 This composting process create a bad smell , so that we are using high suction
power exhaust fan. In this suction fans is pull a Odorant particles throw out to
the atmospheric air
 Food waste and decomposer sand is mixed well before pouring in top of the
hopper. Food waste and decomposer mixer breakdown the particles like (leaf
and tomato and other kitchen veg, waste food) using grinding method
 Traditional composting methods are slow decomposing and high level of odor
form. Now odor free decomposer and quick decomposer at a same time cost
effective home decomposing.
 Household waste Decomposer suitable for trace garden

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iii
CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF TABLE vi

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 THE PROBLEM OF FOOD WASTE 2
1.3 OBJECTIVE 3
1.4 PRINCIPLE 4
1.5 AIM OF WORK 6
1.6 CONCEPT OF THE DECOMPOSING
OF HOME WASTES 6
1.7 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF
THE PROJECT 7
1.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM 8
1.9 ADVANTAGES
1.10 DISADVANTAGE 9
1.11 APPLICATION 11
1.12 CAD DIAGRAMS 11
1.13 SPECIFICATIONS 11

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.1.1 Composting and Waste Management 12

2.1.2. Existing Composting Technologies 12
2.1.3. Cost-Effective Composting Solutions
2.1.4. Factors Affecting Decomposition of Home
Wastes 12
2.1.5 Technological Innovations and Design
Considerations 13
2.1.6 Case Studies and Success Stories 13
2.2 JOURNALS PAPERS 14
2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DECOMPOSER 27
2.3.1 Grinding Mechanism For
Decomposer 28
2.4 GEARS 29
2.5 COMPARISON WITH DRIVE
MECHANISM 30
2.6 SUCTION BLDC FAN 31
2.7 TYPES OF SPUR GEARS 33
2.8 APPLICATIONS OF SPUR GEARS 36
2.9 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 36
2.10 CONSTRUCTION 37
: 2.11 DRIVE UNIT 38

TABLE OF CONTENT

v
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3 MATERIALS USED 40
3.1.1 MILD STEEL 40
3.1.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
VALUE 40
3.1.3 OTHER MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES 41
3.1.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILD
STEEL 41
3.2 STAINLESS STEEL 41
3.2.1 PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS
STEEL 42
3.3 CAST IRON 43

3.4 SHEET METAL 44

4 FABRICATION OF THE MACHINE 47

4.2 MACHINING OPERATION 47
4.2.1 Drilling 47
4.2.2 FINE GRINDING 48
4.2.3 FURTHER OPERATION CLEANING 48
4.3 WELDING 48
4.3.1 OXY-FUEL WELDING 48
4.3.2 SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING 49
4.3.3GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 49
TABLE OF CONTENT

vi
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.3.4. GAS METAL ARC WELDING

(GMAW) 49
4.3.5. FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING
(FCAW) 49
4.3.6. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) 49
4.3.7. ELECTRO SLAG WELDING
(ESW) 49
4.3.8. ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING
(ERW) 50
4.3.9. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
(SMAW) 50

5 DESING CALCULATION 51
5.1.1 DESIGN OF SPUR GEAR 51

6 COST ESTIMATION 53
6.1 COST ESTIMATION 53
6.2 ACTUAL PICTURE OF THE
HOUSEHOLD DECOMPOSER 54

7 CONCLUSION 55

8 REFERENCE 56

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO: DISCRIPTION PAGE NO:

1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 8

2 CAD DIAGRAMS 11

3 SUCTION BLDC FAN 31

ACTUAL PICTURE OF
4 PEDAL OPERATED
WET GRINDER 54

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO: DESCRIPTION PAGE NO:

1 COST OF ESTIMATION 53

viii
 CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
 The management of organic waste, particularly from households, poses a
significant challenge in today's world where sustainability is paramount. As
populations grow and urbanization accelerates, the volume of waste generated
increases exponentially, placing strain on existing waste management systems
and posing environmental threats. In response to this pressing issue, this project
aims to develop a cost-effective composting solution tailored for easy
decomposition of home wastes.
 Composting, a natural process of organic matter decomposition, offers a
sustainable and eco-friendly way to manage organic waste. By harnessing the
power of microorganisms to break down organic materials into nutrient-rich
compost, composting not only reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills but
also produces a valuable resource for soil enrichment and plant growth…
 The objective of this project is twofold: to address the need for a practical
solution for households to manage their organic waste effectively and to
contribute to environmental sustainability by promoting composting as a viable
alternative to traditional waste disposal method. This report will detail the
methodology employed in developing the cost-effective composting solution,
including research and analysis, design and development, prototype
construction, optimization, and evaluation. Furthermore, it will highlight the
results obtained from testing the prototype composting system, focusing on its
cost-effectiveness, efficiency in waste decomposition, odor control
mechanisms, and the quality of compost produced.

1
 By providing households with a user-friendly and affordable composting
solution, this project aims to empower individuals to take proactive steps
towards reducing their environmental footprint and fostering a more sustainable
future.
 Through innovation and collaboration, we can turn organic waste into a
valuable resource while protecting the planet for generations to come.

1.2 The Problem of Food Waste

An FAO study using compiled global food production and waste data from 2009
estimated that 32% of all food which is produced for human consumption globally
is lost or wasted; this amounts to approximately 1.3 billion tons per year (FAO
2011). When this estimate is converted to calories, approximately 24%, or one out
of every four food calories produced, is wasted (Lipinski et al. 2013).

The majority of food loss and waste occur at different stages in the food supply
chain for developed an developing regions. In industrialized countries, the majority
of food is wasted at the retail and consumer stages, while in low-income countries,
food is often lost in the production or processing stages of the supply chain before
it even reaches the consumer (FAO 2011). Still, most food loss and waste comes
from consumers in areas of mass food consumption (Cloke 2016). For instance,
food waste at the consumer level in developed countries is estimated at 222 million
tons, which is nearly as high as the total net food production (230 million tons) of
sub-Saharan Africa (FAO 2011). Figure 1 displays some of the various causes of
food loss and waste throughout the food supply chain (Lipinski et al. 2013; Bloom
2011).

2
 In the present days and future, world is moving toward the fully automated
machining, where the human efforts are considerably decreased in each and every
aspect. Hence in this paper we have discussed about how grinding machine doesn’t
consume electricity as well as how increases the human health in low cost. The wet
pulses grinding machine is used for performing grinding work. Its function is
similar like an exercise bicycle, which was basically used for exercising purpose
has been modified for grinding. This grinding machine doesn’t consume
electricity, only human power is required but human power is not constant it may
vary. There are several components which are... flywheel, chain drive, pulley
drive, base of structure etc.

1.3 OBJECTIVE

1. Affordable: Design and implement a composting system that utilizes readily

available materials and technologies, ensuring affordability for households with
varying budgets. By minimizing costs associated with equipment and
maintenance, the solution should be accessible to a wide range of users.
2. Ease of use: Create a user-friendly composting system that requires minimal
effort and expertise to operate effectively. The solution should be intuitive, with
clear instructions and straightforward maintenance procedures, enabling even
novice composters to participate in waste management efforts
3. Efficient Decomposition: Develop a composting process that efficiently breaks
down a diverse range of home wastes, including kitchen scraps, yard trimmings,
and paper waste. The system should optimize decomposition rates while
maintaining optimal conditions for microbial activity, ensuring rapid conversion
of organic matter into compost.
4. Odor Control: Implement mechanisms to control odors associated with the
decomposition process, both during composting and storage. By maintaining

3
 proper aeration, moisture levels, and carbon-to-nitrogen ratios, the solution
should minimize unpleasant odors and mitigate potential nuisance for users and
neighbors.
5. Quality Compost Production: Produce high-quality compost that is rich in
nutrients, free from harmful pathogens, and suitable for use in gardening or
landscaping applications. The compost should demonstrate excellent soil
conditioning properties, promoting plant growth, enhancing soil fertility, and
improving overall soil health
6. Environmental Sustainability: Promote composting as a sustainable
alternative to traditional waste disposal methods, such as landfilling or
incineration. By diverting organic waste from landfills and reducing greenhouse
gas emissions associated with waste decomposition, the solution should
contribute to environmental conservation and climate mitigation efforts.
7. By achieving these objectives, the cost-effective composting solution aims to
empower households to take proactive steps towards managing their organic
waste in an environmentally responsible manner.

1.4 PRINCIPLE:
1. Optimized Decomposition: Design the composting system to create favorable
conditions for microbial activity, ensuring rapid breakdown of organic
materials. This includes maintaining appropriate moisture levels, aeration, and
temperature to support the growth of composting organisms.
2. Balanced Ingredient Mix: Ensure a balanced mixture of green (nitrogen-rich)
and brown (carbon-rich) materials to promote microbial diversity and efficient
decomposition. A proper balance of ingredients provides the necessary nutrients
and energy for microorganisms to thrive and break down organic matter
effectively.

4
3. Particle Size Reduction: Shred or chop larger waste materials into smaller
pieces to increase the surface area available for microbial colonization and
accelerate decomposition. Finely chopped materials decompose more rapidly
than larger chunks, leading to faster composting times..
4. Turning and Mixing: Regularly turn and mix the compost pile to aerate the
materials, distribute moisture and nutrients evenly, and facilitate microbial
activity. Turning the pile prevents anaerobic conditions, which can slow down
decomposition and lead to unpleasant odors.
5. Covering and Insulation: Covering the compost pile with a breathable
material helps retain moisture and heat, creating a microclimate conducive to
decomposition. Insulating the pile with materials such as straw or cardboard can
further enhance heat retention, speeding up the composting process, especially
in colder climates.
6. Monitoring and Adjusting: Continuously monitor key composting parameters
such as temperature, moisture content, and odor to gauge the progress of
decomposition. Adjust the composting process as needed to maintain optimal
conditions and address any issues that may arise.
7. By prioritizing efficiency: in the design and operation of the composting
solution, households can effectively convert their organic waste into nutrient-
rich compost in a timely and cost-effective manner. This principle underscores
the importance of maximizing the value derived from organic waste while
minimizing environmental impact and resource consumption.

5
1.5 AIM OF WORK
This review will focus on cost-effective and odor free decomposer moreover
we get quick fertilize

1.6 CONCEPT OF THE DECOMPOSING OF HOME WASTES

The concept of decomposing home wastes involves harnessing natural processes

to break down organic materials generated in households into nutrient-rich
compost. This decomposition process is central to composting, a sustainable waste
management technique that transforms organic waste into a valuable resource for
soil enrichment and plant growth. Several key concepts underlie the decomposition
of home wastes Organic Matter: Home wastes consist primarily of organic
materials such as food scraps, yard trimmings, paper, and other biodegradable
substances. These materials are rich in carbon and nitrogen, providing essential
nutrients for microbial decomposition. Microbial Activity: Decomposition is
driven by the activity of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and other
decomposers. These microorganisms break down complex organic molecules into
simpler compounds through metabolic processes, releasing nutrients in the process.
Aerobic Decomposition: In aerobic decomposition, microorganisms require
oxygen to carry out the breakdown of organic matter. Adequate aeration of the
compost pile or bin ensures that aerobic conditions are maintained, promoting the
growth of aerobic bacteria and fungi, which are efficient decomposers. Carbon-to-
Nitrogen Ratio: The ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) in the composting materials
influences the rate and efficiency of decomposition. A balanced C:N ratio
(typically around 30:1) ensures that microorganisms have sufficient nutrients to
thrive, leading to faster composting. Moisture and Temperature: Moisture and
temperature play crucial roles in decomposition. Moisture provides the necessary

6
environment for microbial activity, while temperature influences the rate of
decomposition. Optimal moisture levels (typically 50-60%) and temperatures
(ideally between 110°F to 160°F or 43°C to 71°C) accelerate the composting
process. Particle Size and Surface Area: Breaking down larger waste materials into
smaller pieces increases the surface area available for microbial colonization,
accelerating decomposition. Shredding or chopping organic materials facilitates
microbial access to nutrients and speeds up the composting process. Nutrient
Cycling: Decomposition is part of the natural nutrient cycling process, where
organic matter is broken down into simpler forms and recycled back into the
environment. The resulting compost is rich in nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium, which can be used to fertilize soil and support plant
growth. By understanding and applying these concepts, households can effectively
manage their organic waste through composting, turning what would otherwise be
discarded into a valuable resource for soil health and sustainability.

1.6 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT:

 The functional description of the project work is explained in brief here. For
better understanding, the total project work is divided into various blocks and
each block explanation is provided here.
 This mechanism includes durability chain and spur gears and heavy grinder
head frame to rotate Sprockets by a chain that drives as an alternative to this
pedal type, more simple and comfortable.
 This Spur gears is power transmission components primarily used to change the
direction of shaft rotation and to decrease speed and increase torque between
non-parallel rotating shafts. They are used on shafts with intersecting axes and
in special cases on shafts whose axes do not intersect.

7
 The mechanism includes a crank lever, which when forced by the drivers legs,
pushes a drive arm that, in turn, rotates a drive wheel. The rotation of the drive
spur gears transmits a torque to the gearing mechanism.

1.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 1.7

1.8 ADVANTAGES:
 Reduced Waste to Landfills: By composting organic waste at home,
individuals can significantly reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills. This
decreases the burden on municipal waste management systems and helps
extend the lifespan of landfill site
 Nutrient-Rich Soil Amendment: Compost produced from home waste is a
valuable soil amendment rich in organic matter and essential nutrients. It
enhances soil structure, promotes microbial activity, and improves nutrient

8
 retention, leading to healthier plants and increased crop yields in gardens and
landscapes.
 Saves Money: Home composting eliminates the need to purchase commercial
fertilizers and soil amendments, resulting in cost savings for gardeners and
homeowners. Additionally, it reduces waste disposal fees or the cost of
purchasing compost for those who rely on municipal waste collection
services.
 Environmental Benefits: Composting at home reduces greenhouse gas
emissions associated with organic waste decomposition in landfills. It also
conserves resources by recycling nutrients back into the soil, thereby
supporting sustainable agricultural practices and ecosystem health.
 Promotes Sustainable Living: Home composting fosters a sense of
environmental responsibility and encourages sustainable living practices. It
empowers individuals to take an active role in reducing their ecological
footprint and contributing to a more circular economy.

1.8 DISADVANTAGES:
 Household decomposers, while beneficial in many ways, can also present
some disadvantages:
 Maintenance Requirements Depending on the type of decomposer used (e.g.,
compost bin, vermicomposting system), there may be specific maintenance
tasks involved such as regular turning of compost or ensuring optimal
conditions for worms. This can require time and effort from the homeowner.

9
 Space Constraints: Not all households have adequate space for a composting
setup or vermicomposting bin. Urban dwellers, for example, may struggle to
find room for these systems.
 Pest Attraction: Decomposing organic matter can attract pests such as flies,
rodents, or raccoons if not managed properly. This can become a nuisance
and potentially pose health risks.
 Initial Investment: Setting up a household decomposer may require an initial
investment in equipment or materials such as a compost bin,
vermicomposting system, or specialized additives. While these costs may
pay off in the long run through reduced waste disposal expenses, they can be
a barrier for some households.
 Learning Curve: Successfully managing a household decomposer requires
knowledge and skills regarding proper composting techniques, moisture
levels, carbon-to-nitrogen ratios, etc. There can be a learning curve for
beginners, and mistakes may lead to ineffective decomposition or other
issues.
 Limited Capacity: Household decomposers may have limited capacity,
especially compared to municipal composting facilities. This can be a
challenge for households with large amounts of organic waste or during
periods of increased waste generation.
 Not Suitable for All Waste: Certain types of waste, such as meat, dairy, or
pet waste, may not be suitable for household composting or
vermicomposting systems due to the risk of attracting pests or pathogens.
This limitation may require alternative disposal methods for these materials.

10
1.10 APPLICATION:
 Reduce operator effort and increase efficiency
 Multi field application that is industry, household, agriculture, etc.
 Multi-purpose application that is grinding, cutting, etc.
 Substantial savings on cost

1.11 CAD DIAGRAMS:

Figure 1.11

1.12 SPECIFICATIONS:
By meeting these specifications, a composting mechanism can provide an effective
and sustainable solution for managing household organic waste while promoting
environmental stewardship
CHAPTER 2

11
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review for the design and fabrication of cost-effective composting
solutions for easy decomposing of home wastes would typically involve exploring
existing research, studies, and innovations related to composting technologies,
waste management practices, and sustainable solutions. Here's an outline to guide
your literature review
2.1.1. Composting and Waste Management:
Define composting and its significance in waste management.Highlight the
importance of composting for easy decomposing of home wastes.Discuss the
environmental benefits of composting, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and conserving landfill space.
2.1.2. Existing Composting Technologies:
Review traditional composting methods such as backyard composting,
vermicomposting (using worms), and aerobic composting.Explore modern
composting technologies, including in-vessel composting systems, rotary drum
composters, and bokashi composting.
2.1.3. Cost-Effective Composting Solutions:
Examine studies and projects focused on developing cost-effective composting
solutions for home use.Evaluate the affordability and scalability of different
composting methods and technologies.Discuss the potential for DIY (do-it-
yourself) composting systems using readily available materials
2.1.4. Factors Affecting Decomposition of Home Wastes:
Identify key factors influencing the decomposition process, such as temperature,
moisture content, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N ratio), and aeration.Review
research on optimizing composting conditions to accelerate decomposition and
produce high-quality compost.

12
2.1.5. Technological Innovations and Design Considerations:
Explore innovative composting technologies designed specifically for home
use.Discuss design considerations such as space requirements, odor management,
ease of use, and maintenance.Highlight any technological advancements that
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of home composting systems.
2.1.6. Case Studies and Success Stories:
Analyze case studies of successful composting initiatives implemented at the
household level.Identify factors contributing to the success of these initiatives,
such as community engagement, education, and support infrastructure.
2.1.7. Challenges and Limitations:
Address common challenges associated with home composting, such as odor,
pests, and limited space.Discuss strategies for overcoming these challenges and
maximizing the benefits of composting.
2.1.8. Policy and Regulatory Frameworks:
Review existing policies and regulations related to composting and waste
management at the local, national, and international levels.Evaluate the role of
government incentives, subsidies, and waste management programs in promoting
composting initiatives.
2.1.9. Future Directions and Research Opportunities:
Identify gaps in current research and opportunities for further innovation in
composting technology.Propose potential areas for future research, such as
optimizing composting processes, developing integrated waste management
systems, and assessing the long-term impacts of composting on soil health and
biodiversity.

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2.2 JOURNALS PAPERS

Topic: 01

Topic: Composting of vegetable waste

Author: James Chang
Vegetable waste is the non-edible parts of vegetables that are discarded during
collection, handling, transportation and processing. In the past, those wastes have
been mixed into municipal waste streams and sent to landfills or incinerators for
final disposal. As landfills close at an alarming rate, and fewer incinerators are
under development, the disposal of vegetable waste becomes a serious problem in
many cities. A number of supermarkets and wholesales markets are anxious to find
an alternative means of disposal. Composting is an old and inexpensive method
that converts organic waste into useful compost that can be used as a soil
conditioner and organic fertilizer. It is an exothermic biodegradation process that
involves a complex web of biochemical reactions in which facultative and aerobic
microorganisms catabolize substrates for their growth and metabolic needs
(Alexander 1977, Paul & Clark 1996). Carbonaceous substrates in the composting
process are first hydrolysed, then oxidized to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and
heat, and finally transformed into stable composts. Basic scientific principles of
composting have been understood, but most research efforts have been limited to
known substrates such as animal waste and biosolids. The vegetable waste
generated in several supermarket chains in the United States have been sent to
commercial composting facilities since 1992 (Pesersen 1994, Rockell 1994,
Goldstein 2003), but only a few investigators have conducted laboratory and pilot
studies on vegetable and supermarket waste in the past. Huang et al. (2000) used a
laboratory-scale, temperature-controlled reactor to study the kinetic behaviour of

14
thermophilic composting of pre-dried vegetable waste. For the subtropical region,
the following operating conditions were suggested: 5.3 : 1 for the weight ratio of
the initial, predried waste to rice husks; an aeration rate of 1.65 L air kg–1 dry-
solid (DS) min–1; reaction temperature of 57.1°C, and reaction time of 14 days.
Composting of vegetable waste Waste Management & Research 355 Vallini et al.
(1989, 1992, 1993) first composted market vegetable refuse in a pilot-scale, force-
aerated reactor for 35 days and then cured the premature product in a second
reactor. Van Roosmalen & Langerijt (1989) also used forced aeration to
successfully compost vegetable waste with chipped wood and with separately
collected organics. To successfully compose solid wastes, the following conditions
have to be met: the carbon to nitrogen ratio of the composting material between 20
and 40, the moisture content between 50 and 70%, adequate oxygen supply (O2
concentration in the flue gas over 15%) (de Bertoldi 1988, Miller 1993), small
particle size of 1.3 to 7.6 cm (Gray et al. 1971), and a minimum of free air space
(FAS) of 30% for the air to flow through (Haug 1993). Without adequate oxygen
flow, a fraction of the composting material may undergo anaerobic fermentation,
which retards the aerobic biodegradation. Laboratory-scale units have been used
successfully to determine the optimal course of composting by several researchers
in the past. Körner et al. (2003) used a maximum of 10 100-L steel reactors
simultaneously for the simulation of a composting process and the determination of
the best operating controls such as aeration, moistening and turning. Nakasaki et al.
(1985, 1992, 2002) used a laboratory-scale, packed-bed autothermal reactor
(volume: 28 L) to study the effect of seeding on thermophilic composting of a
variety of waste such as sewage sludge, dog food and tofu refuse. The agitation
that facilitates better solid mixing, gas–solid contact, mass transfer, and bacteria
spreading has not been emphasized in the past. It was thus desired to develop a
laboratory composting system with effective agitation in order to study the

15
biodegradation process of vegetable waste and to determine the optimal process
parameters during the composting process. CO2 evolution has been known to
correlate well with microbial activities and waste degradation for a long time
(Haug 1980, Nakasaki et al. 1985, Richard 1997, Körner et al. 2003). A simple
model for CO2 evolution based only on the concept of bacterial growth is desired.
Among the many mathematical models that describe bacterial growth in a batch
culture, the Gompertz equation was found to be the most suitable for single
bacteria species such as Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus acidopjilus
(Zwietering et al. 1990, Cho et al. 1996). This model was applied successfully to
the methane production from landfill bioreactors (Lay et al. 1998), hydrogen
production from anaerobic bioreactors (Lay 2000) as the result of activities of
anaerobic bacteria, and CO2 evolution from the thermophilic composting of a
synthetic food waste made of dog food as the result of activities of aerobic and
facultative bacteria (Chang et al. 2005). Using this method, the complex CO2
evolution curve can be expressed as the sum of the CO2 evolution rates from each
individual component and a set of biokinetic parameters. Those parameters could
be used for the kinetic study of the biodegradation process. The objective of this
investigation was to study the effects of controlling parameters such as the aeration
rate, agitation, and the percentage of seeding on the carbon conversion and the
CO2 evolution in a specially designed reactor equipped with a helical agitator. The
experimental data were subject to multivariate regression analysis. The specific
CO2 evolutions were then fitted to a modified Gompertz model.

16
 Topic: 02
Topic: Influence Of Resource Quality On The Composition Of Soil
Decomposer Community In Fragmented And Continuous Habita
Author: Minna-Liisa Rantalainena, Leena Kontiolaa, Jari Haimia, Hannu
Fritzeb, Heikki Seta¨La¨
The long lasted search for a mechanistic understanding of the bewildering
diversity of soil organisms still remains without a final conclusion. Niche
separation between species has been given as a possible explanation for the high
diversity , but the dominance of generalist feeding habits amongst the soil
organisms appears to contradict that explanation It has been suggested that the
most probable reason for the species richness is the spatial and temporal
heterogeneity of soils in relation to the small size, limited mobility and aggregative
occurrence of most soil organisms, reducing their competitive interactions and thus
possibilities for competitive exclusion of species . While this heterogeneity can be
perceived as, e.g. large-scale changes in vegetation, mirroring in the composition
of the under-laying soil community, the heterogeneity at much smaller, even at a
scale of an individual soil organism, can also be important in determining the
diversity of the local soil food web. Such small-scale heterogeneity in soils is
mainly due to inputs of various kinds of litters, leading also to variations in the
quantity of resources available for the decomposer organisms. Even though the
quantity of basal resources, often paralleled to the productivity of the habitat, has
proven to have profound effects on the composition of various aboveground and
aquatic communities (e.g. Tilman, 1993; Warren and Spencer, 1996; Srivastava
and Lawton, 1998 and references therein), it has been proposed that the diversity of
decomposers is not dependent on the level of productivity of the habitat but is
above all determined by the variety of resources produced by the primary
producers (Giller, 1996; Wardle, 2002). Mixture of different litter types may, for

17
example, be structurally more complex than a homogeneous litter and have more
decomposition stages, thus reducing competition between the decomposers and
offering an opportunity for the coexistence of many species/ individuals (Hansen
and Coleman, 1998). Fragmentation of habitats appears to be a universal reason
behind changes in the diversity of organisms, having generally a negative impact
on the diversity of biota formerly inhabiting larger habitat areas (e.g. Harrison and
Bruna, 1999; Debinski and Holt, 2000). While the impacts of habitat fragmentation
on aboveground communities have received ample attention, the effects of such
habitat changes on sub-surface communities have remained largely unexplored
(but see Didham, 1998; Gilbert et al., 1998; Gonzalez et al., 1998; Gonzalez and
Chaneton, 2002). The crucial role of soil organisms in maintaining the life-
supporting processes, such as nutrient cycling, indicates that the possible
fragmentation-induced changes in soil decomposer communities could have far-
reaching implications on the functioning of the entire ecosystem (Didham, 1998).
In previous studies, we have examined the effects of fragmentation and isolation
on the diversity of soil decomposer communities (Rantalainen et al., 2004,
Rantalainen et al., unpublished). Since differences in resource quality caused by
the presence/absence of different kind of litters appear to be a fundamental factor
in controlling the diversity of soil organisms, in the present experiment we aimed
at including this aspect in our investigations. Specifically, we were interested in the
interplay between the effects of fragmentation of the habitat of decomposers and
the quality of resources in the habitat fragments. As suggested by Moore and De
Ruiter (1997), the energetic organisation of a community, ultimately determined by
the number of basal resources in the habitat, may strongly influence the
colonisation–extinction process. We hypothesized that small-scale fragmentation
of soils leads to species extinctions, especially in species with high trophic
positions (Holt, 1996). Colonisation of fragmented habitat patches by immigrants

18
from the ‘mainland’ was expected to be inadequate to replace lost individuals/
species. Low resource quality was expected to strengthen the negative effects of
fragmentation, leading to especially low diversity of the decomposer community in
the fragmented patches with the lowest resource quality. In a continuous habitat,
the non-isolated patches, especially those with high-quality resources, were
hypothesized to become rapidly colonised by soil organisms. The improved
resource quality was thus expected to lead to higher abundance and species
richness of decomposer organisms within both habitats.
Topic:03
Topic: Role of Decomposers in Agricultural Waste Management
Author: Nusrat Iqbal Amrish Agrawal, Saurabh Dubey, Jitender Kumar
Agricultural waste is produced by various agricultural operations, and it contains
sugarcane baggage, paddy and wheat straw and husk, waste of vegetables, food
products, jute fibers, crop stalks, etc. About 998 million tons of agri-residue waste
is produced every year [1]. The abundance of agricultural waste production causes
a lot of environmental pollution and generates many environmental contamination
problems. During certain periods of time, characteristics of waste materials have
changed and cause harmful and toxic effects toward human beings.
Approximately, 2 tons per day agri-waste is produced in rural areas. Besides this,
cow houses and sugar industry produced an average 20 million tons of waste,
which is a rich source of nutrients and manures. Conventionally, farmers burnt up
or left the agricultural waste in the field, but this causes lots of air pollution and
soil pollution. Various techniques have been utilized for agri-residue disposal.
Agricultural waste mainly consists of crop residues which have lots of organic
carbon content and a supply of plant nutrients. Crop residues’ retention after 1
harvesting reduces soil erosion [2]. Combine harvester machines contributes 75%
residue after harvesting but due to high silica content animals are not likely to feed

19
these residues. Then farmers start to burn the residues, but burning emits 8.77 Mt.
of CO, 141.15 Mt. CO2, 0.23 Mt. of NO, and 0.12 Mt. of NH3 [3], which causes
air pollution and loss of organic content of approximately 80–90% N, 25% of P,
20% of K, and 50% of Singh et al. [4]. So, the rice straw management is a
challenging task in rice-producing regions. So, there is a need for an effective
waste disposal technology for converting this waste into some valuable form.
Physical, chemical, and biological decompositions break the lingo-cellulose bonds
in crop residues and result in the enhancing of the nutrient content of soil [5].
Biological decomposition is the main and efficient decomposition method in which
bacterial and fungal spores speed up the decomposition of waste under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions
Topic: 04
Topic: Use of Waste Decomposer: A Study of the Organic Farming and
Enhancing the Farmers' Income Level
Author: Raj Kumar Gurung
Background of the Study The history of waste decomposers is interesting. India
had the problem of managing the waste it produced millions of tons every year. To
overcome the waste management problem, India developed a product called Waste
Decomposer. It is a consortium of a few beneficial microorganisms which is
isolated by Krishan Chandra 2004 from desi cow dung and took 11 years to
standardize the mass multiplication technique at the farm level (Chandra et al.,
2004, p. 1). In the beginning, this waste decomposer was invented for
decomposing the wastes from farms, industries and factories. There was a problem
in managing the waste from the city. Later, the national centre of organic farming
of India seems to have experimented with it for agricultural usage and then they
found a good result. After 11 years, this product was proven to be beneficial for
agricultural use. Now, it has been used in India nationwide and most of them are

20
benefitted from this product. This paper attempts to bridge between agriculture and
literature. Agriculture is the source of literature. Good agricultural products
provide nutritious food. Nutritious food fosters the human mind. Healthy mind
healthy product. So far as literature is concerned, it is the reflection of the society.
When will there be literary productivities like writing poems, plays, stories or
novels? It will be when the healthy minds start working. Organic food is supposed
to be healthy food. The use of waste decomposers helps produce organic food. This
enhances the literary productions. Nepal is an agricultural country and agriculture
is the backbone of the nation’s economy. Although thousands of new technologies
in farming have come, Nepali farmers are still using the conventional methods of
farming so their returns are not so exciting. This frustrated many farmers and they
have brains drained. In search of income-oriented jobs, either they have migrated
to towns or moved to foreign lands for earning. Now, the Nepali people have
started thinking that earning is possible only in foreign lands. The farmers, who
have no option but to go to towns and foreign lands, have been working on the
farm with a frustrated mentality. This paper attempts to prove that it is not good to
be frustrated. And this study attempts to make the local farmers happy. There are
several ways of earning even in the home country because almost all the
employees, who came back to Nepal from foreign countries after a
https://doi.org/10.3126/dristikon.v13i1.56061 125 certain period, have started
farming being influenced and inspired by other countries. They make money here
more than the money they used to earn in foreign lands. Their income nearly
doubles from organic farming. And most of them regret having gone abroad. They
claim that they would have earned more money if they had started farming instead
of going there. There are several examples of such realities. Many people in Nepal
have been suffering from poverty because of low harvesting as they cultivate their
land applying conventional methods. The government of Nepal has been

21
attempting to alleviate poverty through different policy interventions. To achieve
poverty alleviation, the government encourages unorganized people from different
sectors of the economy to form cooperatives (Rai, 2021, p. 1-2). But it does not
seem to have worked well. Theoretically, the government has done a lot more for
the betterment of Nepali farmers but their condition has not been enhanced.
Moreover, a huge amount of nitrogen fertilizer is being used to increase crop
productivity (Marahatta 2022, p. 115) but the farmer’s condition is almost the
same. After all, the farmers are always doing their best for better harvest or good
crop productivity. Their harvest is not bad but its yield is not increasing. The study
focuses on the following research questions.
Topic:05
Topic: Development of Organic Fertilizer from Food Waste by Composting in
UTHM Campus Pagoh
Author : Hazren A. Hamid,Lim Pei Qi, Hasnida Harun, Norshuhaila
Mohamed Sunar, Faridah Hanim Ahmad, Mimi Suliza Muhamad,
Nuramidah Hamidon
From year 2000 to 2017, the global urban population has increased from 2.9
billion to 4.1 billion and by 2030, it is expected to reach 5.1 billion out of 8.6
billion of global population [1]. The explosion of population and increment of
urbanization with changing lifestyles create more and more wastes being generated
in many cities and townships. This ever-rising shift of the world population is
already evident and will produce even more remarkable amounts of urban food
waste, which in turn will add pressure to the already overloaded municipal solid
waste transportation system and landfill sites [2]. According to the study conducted
by SWCorp showed that Malaysians generated 38,000 tonnes of solid waste daily
in 2016, of which 15,000 tonnes was food waste. It found that 20%, or 3,000
tonnes, of this food waste was avoidable [3]. Most food waste has been land filled

22
together with other wastes, resulting in various problems such as emanating odor,
attracting vermin, emitting toxic gases, contaminating groundwater by the leachate
and wasting landfill capacity [4]. Methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
emitted as a result of microbial activity under uncontrolled anaerobic conditions at
dumping sites are released into the atmosphere and contribute to global warming
[5]. Composting is a good idea to reduce the amount of solid waste in the landfill.
Composting is a controlled decomposition where natural breakdown process
occurs. Composting is the transformations of raw organic materials into
biologically stable, humic substances suitable for a variety of soils and plant uses
[6]. Organic fertilizers are the end product of composting. Organic fertilizers are
natural fertilizer which made up from vegetables, fruits, animals and many more.
Organic fertilizers are crucial in agricultural sector because they have positive
effect on soil without damaging ground water and plants
Topic 6
Topic: Food Waste Management
Author: Nicole Kennard
The complex reasons behind why nearly one-third of all food produced for
human consumption is wasted are evident throughout the food supply chain, from
production to consumption. While there are many practical strategies which have
been discussed to reduce food loss and waste (i.e., improving storage facilities,
starting food waste awareness campaigns), these do not solve the underlying
causes of why loss and waste still exist to such a large extent in todays word. The
largest barrier to eliminating food loss and waste is the corporate control of the
global food system. Within this globalised, neoliberal political economy, waste
brings profit and power; whether from corporations encouraging unnecessary and
unhealthy overconsumption through marketing campaigns, or the governments of
the developed world encouraging overproduction of food commodities to use as a

23
mechanism of control through food aid, the global food system relies on creating
and profiting from waste. Thus, to truly put an end to food waste, citizens of the
world must organise to reshape and rebuild local and global food systems in a way
that builds food sovereignty, respects nature, nurtures health and wellbeing of
people, and ensures the right to food for all people in a sustainable and resilient
manner
Topic 7

Topic: Decomposition in Arid Environments: Role of the Detritivore Gut

Author: C.S. Crawford
Rates of essential processes (e.g. production, conswnption, and decomposition)
in arid environments are often highly variable in time and space, in part because of
low and uneven precipitation. I The horizontal displacement of litter in such
relatively windy and treeless landscapes is considerable, since there are
comparatively few sites to retain blown detritus until it decomposes. Therefore,
even though rates of decomposition may at times be surprisingly high in desert
regions ,2,3 ratios of surface litter to total aboveground biomass in such places far
exceed those of temperate forests.4 Acknowledging the temporal and spatial
patchiness of such accumulations, we now ask how decomposer assemblages
actually contend with the chronic instability of litter in their habitats. Are responses
among the biota of the detritus food web governed directly by temperature and
moisture levelS? Or do extenuating circumstances pennit and promote the
breakdown and mineralization of organic debris at rates largely independent of
climatic control? These questions relate to still broader alternatives posed by
NoyMeir, 5 one being a scenario for process functioning in arid en- . vironments
characterized by minimal feedbacks (the 'autecological hypothesis'), versus a
condition of strong climatic and trophic-level interaction (the 'ecosystem

24
hypothesis'). In the present article we . examine - in the context of these questions
and ideas - frrst the obvious detenninants of decomposition in arid regions, and
then a more subtle determinant of potentially major importance, the role of the
detritivore gut. For purposes of discussion we p~nt the known determinants of
decomposition in arid environments as three somewhat overlapping categories:
seasonal climate, quality of litter, and interaction of microbes and detritivores.
Topic 8

Topic: Waste Decomposer – Immanent for Plant

Author: Ms.Shweta S
Solutions to most of the problems faced in organic farming like unproductive
soil, bad Soil health, Pests, Unsatisfactory Fruit quality. To solve this probleman
alternative to currently available, commercial bio-control agents and biofertilizers,
waste decomposer was released for farmers by National Centre of Organic
Farming,Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh. It is a consortium of few beneficial microbes
which is isolated by Krishan Chandra in 2004 from native cow dung for enhancing
the crop productivity and plant disease management. NCOF has launched waste
decomposer culture in 2015 and shelf life of waste decomposer has three years .It
is used for quick composting from organic waste, soil health improvement and as
plant protection agent. It contains beneficial microorganisms from Desi Cow Dung
for soil health reviver. It can control all types of soil borne, foliar diseases, insects
and pests as plant protection agent. It can be used in various ways such as quick
composting of biowastes, foliar spray as biopesticide against most of the plant
diseases for all types of agricultural and horticultural crops. Waste decomposer
application can eliminate up to 90% uses of all types of pesticides, fungicides and
insecticide since it controls both root diseases and shoots diseases. The waste
decomposer is a consortium of few beneficial bacteria, isolated from desi cow

25
dung and can be easily multiplied with jaggery at farmer level. The waste
decomposer exhibit multifaceted uses in agriculture including in situ composting
of crop residues, quick composting of organic wastes, seed dressing, soil irritant,
biocontrol agent, biofertilizer, soil health reviver etc. It is bestowed with virtues
such as low cost, easier multiplication, fast growth rate, superior shelf life and
broad spectrum activity on phytopathogens. The jaggery propagated waste
decomposer indicated the presence of cellulolytic, phosphate and potassium
solubilizing; siderophore producing bacteria on selective culture media. The
consortium is also abundant in nitrogen fixing bacteria (Azotobacter,Azospirillum,
Rhizobium, Acetobacter) and Pseudomonas fluorescence. The lignocellulolytic
action of waste decomposer on the crop residues aids in greenhouse gas mitigation.
The biocontrol action of waste decomposer is possibly via nutrient and space
competition; antagonistic action, extracellular lytic enzyme, antibiotic,
siderophore, secondary metabolite production; and systemic resistance induction in
plants. The application of waste decomposer improves crop productivity due to its
biofertilizer, biocontrol and mineral solubilizing action. This is the most
economical all in one, bio-fertilizer, bio-pesticide, quick bio-waste composter, and
has many other uses in gardening and farming. Since the launch of Waste
Decomposer more than 10 lakh farmers have used it and revived their fields and all
of them witnessed no crop damage by pests and have got the good yields. It is
often said by the farmers that the input cost has reduced to zero and their income is
doubled by the usage of Waste Decomposer and farmers are happy to use this. so
that it is useful for farmers for growing crops and the farmers aware of agro
chemical use as well as the effect of the awareness so farmers know the use
agrochemicals, particularly pesticides, has become an integral part of the Compost,
with no foul smell, not warm, dry, and very good in quality having high organic
carbon content and other nutrient content.

26
2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DECOMPOSER:
Decomposers are organisms that break down dead organic matter, such as dead
plants and animals, into simpler substances. they play a crucial role in nutrient
cycling and ecosystem functioning. here are some different types of decomposers:
1. bacteria: bacteria are some of the most abundant decomposers in many
ecosystems. they break down organic matter by secreting enzymes that break
down complex molecules into simpler ones, which they then absorb.
2. fungi: fungi, including molds and mushrooms, are another important group of
decomposers. they secrete enzymes to break down organic matter and absorb
the resulting nutrients
3. actinomycetes: these are a group of bacteria that resemble fungi in their
filamentous growth. they are particularly important in breaking down tough
organic materials like cellulose and lignin.
4. protists: some protists, such as amoebas and certain types of algae, can act as
decomposers by consuming dead organic matter and breaking it down into
simpler compounds.
5. worms: earthworms are important decomposers in soil ecosystems. they feed
on dead organic matter, breaking it down physically and chemically, and their
castings (feces) enrich the soil.
6. insects: many insects, such as beetles, flies, and termites, play a role in
decomposition by feeding on dead organic matter and breaking it down into
smaller pieces.
7. arthropods: besides insects, other arthropods like millipedes, centipedes, and
certain types of mites contribute to decomposition by feeding on dead plant and
animal material.

27
8. vultures and scavenging birds: these birds play a role in decomposition by
feeding on dead animal carcasses, helping to break down the organic matter and
accelerate the process
9. marine decomposers: in marine ecosystems, various organisms such as
bacteria, fungi, marine worms, and crustaceans contribute to the decomposition
of organic matter, helping to recycle nutrients in the ocean.these decomposers
work together in ecosystems to break down dead organic matter and recycle
nutrients, playing a crucial role in sustaining life.

2.3.1 GRINDING MECHANISM FOR DECOMPOSER:

The grinding mechanism for decomposers can vary depending on the type of
organism and the nature of the organic matter they are breaking down. Here are
some common mechanisms used by decomposers:
1. Enzymatic degradation: Many decomposers, including bacteria, fungi, and
some protists, produce enzymes that break down complex organic molecules into
simpler compounds. These enzymes act like biological scissors, cutting bonds
within the organic matter and making it easier for the decomposer to absorb
nutrients.
2. Physical grinding: Some decomposers, such as earthworms and certain insects,
mechanically break down organic matter by chewing or grinding it with their
mouthparts. This physical action helps to break up large pieces of organic material
into smaller fragments, increasing the surface area available for microbial
decomposition.
3. Chemical decomposition : Decomposers may also utilize chemical processes to
break down organic matter. For example, certain bacteria can oxidize organic
compounds, leading to their breakdown into simpler molecules. Similarly, some

28
fungi produce acids or other chemicals that help to break down organic matter
chemically.
4. Digestive processes: in decomposers like earthworms and certain insects,
internal digestive processes play a crucial role in breaking down organic matter.
These organisms have specialized digestive systems that contain enzymes and
other substances to break down complex organic molecules into simpler nutrients
that can be absorbed by their bodies.
5. Fragmentation Decomposers like fungi and some bacteria can physically
fragment organic matter by growing hyphae (filamentous structures) through it. As
these hyphae grow and expand, they can break apart organic material into smaller
pieces, facilitating further decomposition.
6. Chewing and grinding: Insects like beetles and larvae have mandibles or
mouthparts adapted for chewing and grinding organic matter. They consume dead
plant material, breaking it down into smaller particles that can be further
decomposed by microbial action Overall, decomposers employ a combination of
enzymatic, physical, chemical, and digestive processes to break down organic
matter into simpler compounds, thus playing a vital role in nutrient recycling and
ecosystem functioning.

2.4 GEARS:
A gear is a wheel with teeth around its edges. The teeth on the gear prevent
slippage and determine the ratio of a gear. The idea of a gear is to transmit rotary
motion and force. The first gear was in invented by Archimedes. Archimedes was a
mathematician and inventor.
He used gears for making catapults and devices that raises water. Blaise Pascal is
widely famous for developments in the fields of geometry, physics and computer
science. One of his invention he is famous for the mechanical calculator or the

29
“Pascale”. The Pascale had a one-tooth gear with a ten-tooth gear. This make the
one tooth gear to turn ten revolutions, for the ten-tooth gear to rotate once.

Leonardo da Vinci another mathematician, inventor and artist has created many
things with gears. One of many inventions Leonardo da Vinci created was the
“Flywheel”. The purpose was, to deliver a smooth power delivery to a motor. The
flywheel allowed rotary motion into see-saw motion. The flywheel was created with
a heavy wheel and rotating shaft connecting to it. Leonardo da Vinci also worked on
a system for lifting heavy loads that uses the worm gear, or what he called the
Today in the modern world there are many different varieties of gears to accomplish
different tasks. The most common gear is called “Spur”. Spur gears have straight
teeth, and are mounted on parallel shafts. Spur gears are most commonly used in
electric screw driver, windup clocks, washing machine and oscillating sprinkler.

Helical gears are more silent and operate smoothly than the spur gears. Helical
gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. The helical gears are most
commonly found in car transmissions. Spur gears are best for changing the direction

2.5 COMPARISON WITH DRIVE MECHANISMS

The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth gives gears an
advantage over other drives (such as traction drives and v-belts) in precision
machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio. In cases where
driver and follower are proximal, gears also have an advantage over other drives in
the reduced number of parts required

2.6 SUCTION BLDC FAN

30
 Figure 2.6

An Exhaust BLDC (Brushless DC) Fan is a type of fan commonly used for
ventilation and air extraction purposes in various applications, including industrial,
commercial, and residential settings. Here's an overview of the key features and
benefits of Exhaust BLDC Fans:

 Brushless DC Motor: BLDC fans are equipped with brushless DC motors,

which offer several advantages over traditional brushed motors, including
higher efficiency, longer lifespan, reduced noise and vibration, and better
speed control. These motors are also more energy-efficient, making them
ideal for continuous operation in ventilation systems.

 High Efficiency: Exhaust BLDC fans are designed to provide high airflow
rates while consuming minimal electrical power. Their efficient motor
design and aerodynamic fan blades ensure effective ventilation with low

31
 energy consumption, resulting in cost savings and reduced environmental
impact.
 Variable Speed Control: BLDC fans typically feature variable speed
control, allowing users to adjust the fan speed according to their specific
ventilation requirements. This flexibility enables precise airflow
management and ensures optimal performance under varying operating
conditions.
 Low Noise Operation: BLDC fans operate with minimal noise and
vibration, making them suitable for noise-sensitive environments such as
residential areas, offices, and healthcare facilities. Their smooth and quiet
operation enhances occupant comfort and minimizes disturbances.
 Long Lifespan: The absence of brushes in BLDC motors reduces wear and
tear, resulting in a longer lifespan compared to brushed motors. Exhaust
BLDC fans are designed for durability and reliability, requiring minimal
maintenance over their operational lifetime.
 Compact Design: BLDC fans are typically compact and lightweight,
making them easy to install in various ventilation systems, including wall-
mounted exhaust fans, ceiling-mounted fans, and ducted ventilation systems.
Their space-saving design allows for flexible installation in confined or
hard-to-reach spaces.
 Smart Control Options: Some Exhaust BLDC fans come equipped with
smart control features, such as remote control operation, programmable
timers, and compatibility with home automation systems. These advanced
control options enhance user convenience and allow for seamless integration
into modern building management systems.
 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability: By consuming less energy and
producing less waste heat compared to traditional AC-powered fans,

32
 Exhaust BLDC fans contribute to energy conservation and sustainability
efforts. Their eco-friendly design helps reduce carbon emissions and
operating costs while promoting environmental responsibility.

2.7 TYPES OF SPUR GEARS:

1. Planetary Spur Gear Drive 2. External Spur Gear

3. Internal Spur Gear 4. Anti-Backlash Gear

2.7.1. Planetary Spur Gear Drive

Planetary spur gear drives, known as epicyclic gearing, consist of a sun gear,
which is the external spur gear, three or more planet gears, and a ring gear that are
combined to make a planetary gear drive. The spur gears in a planetary spur gear
drive move opposite to each other in the same plane.The typical spur gear is a
basic gear in regard to engineering since it doesn’t use speciality angles or cuts but
has complex tooth shapes.

Figure 2.7.1
2.7.2 External Spur
Gear
The configuration of an external spur gear is typical of all types of gears with the
teeth of the gear on the cylinder’s surface. When it meshes with another gear, the

33
gears will rotate in the opposite direction. The drive gear is normally smaller than
the driven gear.

Figure 2.7.2

2.7.3 Internal Spur Gear

The teeth for an internal spur gear are cut on the inner surface of the gear. The
external surface is smooth in the shape of a perfect oval or circle. The inner gear
teeth mesh with a pinion or smaller gear. The gears rotate in the same direction.

Figure 2.7.3

34
2.7.4 Anti-Backlash Gear
An anti-backlash gear assembly has a free gear and fixed gear that are mounted
to a hub or shaft with the movement of the free gear restricted by an extension,
compression, or torsion spring. When the free gear is engaged with the mating
gear, the spring pushes the gear forward against the mating tooth or pulls the tooth
back against the mating tooth. This form of control of backlash is referred to as a
spring loaded anti-backlash gear.
Backlash is play between the tooth surfaces of mating gears and is needed for teeth
deflection and heat generated expansion during gear operation. Clearance between
gears is necessary to let gears mesh and have space for lubricating oil. It is set by a
reduction in tooth thickness and increasing center distance. Although it is a part of
gear performance, certain machines require high gear positioning accuracy with
little to no backlash.
To meet the need of removing backlash, manufacturers have developed anti-
backlash, no backlash, and zero backlash gears. Spring loaded anti-backlash gears
maintain a constant zero backlash and come in various forms to meet the needs of
an application.

Figure 2.7.4

35
2.8 APPLICATIONS OF SPUR GEARS:
1. Drive to bobbin rail on roving machine
2. Drive between the doffer and feed roller on low speed carding machines
3. Drive from calendar roller to coiler rollers. Top coiler to bottom coiler plates
card, comber and drawing machine
4. Drive between calendar roll and lap stop mechanism-lever in lap former of
conventional brow room

2.9 Design Methodology:

A. Components required:
Grinding roller, dc motor, suction fan, decomposer sand for micro biological
breakdown
B. Material Required:
Martial can be selected mild steel for long life however any other Aluminum
alloy, Magnesium alloy material also can be preferred with the paint system.
Material need to be selected such a way to avoid any corrosion.
C. Design Consideration:
1. The device should be suitable for local manufacturing capabilities.
2. The attachment should employ low-cost materials and manufacturing
methods.
3. It should be accessible and affordable by lowincome groups, and should
fulfill their basic need for mechanical power
4. It should be simple to manufacture, operate, maintain and repair
5. It should be as multi-purpose as possible, providing power for various
agricultural implements and for small machines used in rural industry.
6. Excessive weight should be avoided, as durability is a prime consideration

36
2.10 CONSTRUCTION:
Designing and fabricating a cost-effective composting solution for easy
decomposition of home wastes involves several steps. Here's a general outline:
1. Research and Analysis:
Conduct research on existing composting solutions and their effectiveness
Analyze the types and volumes of home wastes typically generated to determine
the requirements of the composting solution.
2. Design Requirements:
Define the key features and requirements of the composting solution, such as
size, capacity, materials, and cost-effectiveness Consider factors like ease of use,
odor control, and aesthetics.
3. Conceptual Design:
Brainstorm various design concepts that meet the defined requirements.Sketch
out rough designs and evaluate their feasibility.
4. Detailed Design:
Select the most promising design concept and create detailed drawings or 3D
models. Specify materials and components needed for construction.
5. Construction:
Gather necessary materials and tools for construction. Follow the detailed design
to build the composting solution, considering durability, stability, and ease of
assembly.
6. Testing and Iteration:
Test the constructed composting solution with different types of home wastes.
Monitor decomposition rates, odor control, and overall effectiveness. Identify any
issues or areas for improvement and iterate on the design as needed.

37
7. Documentation and Instructions:
Document the construction process, including step-by-step instructions and
photos or diagrams. Provide guidance on how to use and maintain the composting
solution effectively.
8. Cost Analysis and Optimization:
Evaluate the overall cost of materials and construction Identify opportunities for
cost optimization without compromising performance or durability.
9. Feedback and Refinement:
Gather feedback from users who test the composting solution Use feedback to
make further refinements or improvements to the design.
10. Scaling and Distribution:
If the composting solution proves to be effective, consider scaling up production
for wider distribution. Explore options for manufacturing or partnering with
organizations for distribution.Throughout the process, it's important to prioritize
sustainability and environmental impact, aiming to create a solution that not only
decomposes home wastes effectively but also minimizes resource usage and
environmental harm.

2.11 DRIVE UNIT:

Designing and fabricating a cost-effective composting solution for easy
decomposition of home wastes involves the creation of a drive unit to facilitate the
composting process. Here's how you can approach it: Define the key functions and
requirements of the drive unit, such as mixing or aerating the composting
materials. Consider factors like power source, efficiency, durability, and ease of
maintenance. Brainstorm various drive unit concepts that meet the defined
requirements. Consider different mechanisms for mixing or aerating the compost,

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such as rotating drums, paddle mixers, or augers. Select the most suitable drive
unit concept and create detailed drawings or 3D models. Specify the materials and
components needed for construction, ensuring they are cost-effective and readily
available. Determine the power source for the drive unit. Options may include
electricity, manual operation, or alternative energy sources like solar or wind.
Gather the necessary materials and tools for building the drive unit.
Fabricate the drive unit according to the detailed design, ensuring proper alignment
and functionality. Test the drive unit with composting materials to ensure it
effectively mixes or aerates the waste. Monitor performance, energy consumption,
and any potential issues. Optimize the design or operating parameters as needed to
improve efficiency and effectiveness. Integrate the drive unit with the overall
composting solution, ensuring compatibility and ease of operation Consider factors
like mounting, safety features, and control mechanisms. Document the
construction and installation process of the drive unit. Provide clear instructions on
how to operate and maintain the drive unit, including any safety precautions.

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 CHAPTER 3

3.1 MATERIALS USED AND THEIR IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS:

3.1.1 MILD STEEL:

Mild steel is a ferrous metal made from iron and carbon. It is a low-priced
material with properties that are suitable for most general engineering applications.
Low carbon mild steel has good magnetic properties due to its high iron content, it
is therefore defined as being ‘ferromagnetic’.
Mild steel has a carbon content of between 0.16% and 0.29 % maximum with a
relatively high melting point of between 1450°C to 1520°C. Steels with a higher
carbon content than mild steel, have a lower melting temperature.
This high melting temperature means that mild steel is more ductile when
heated, making it particularly suitable for forging, cutting, drilling, welding and is
easy to fabricate.
Mild steel is not suitable for through hardening. It can be case hardened by
being heated and a chemically reactive source of carbon added, the subsequent
quench cycle will harden the surface layer.
This outer layer, ‘the case’ will become hardened.

3.1.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES VALUE:

(For mild steel)
Yield Strength : 370 N/mm²
Tensile Strength : 440 N/mm²
Shear Modulus : 80 GPa
Hardness Vickers : 140 Vickers – HV

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3.1.3 OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Steel has a number of properties, including:
a. Hardness,
b. Toughness,
c. Tensile strength

2. Yield strength,
d. Elongation,
e. Fatigue strength,
f. Corrosion,
g. Plasticity,
h. Malleability and Creep

3.1.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL:

1. High tensile strength
2. High impact strength
3. Good ductility and weld ability.
4. A magnetic metal due to its ferrite content.
5. Good malleability with cold-forming possibilities.

3.2 STAINLESS STEEL:

Stainless steel is the name of a family of iron-based alloys known for their
corrosion and heat resistance. One of the main characteristics of stainless steel is
its minimum chromium content of 10.5%, which gives it its superior resistance to

41
corrosion in comparison to other types of steels. Like other steels, stainless steel is
composed primarily from iron and carbon, but with the addition of several other
alloying elements, the most prominent being chromium. Other common alloys
found in stainless steel are nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, and nitrogen.

3.2.1 PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEEL:

Stainless steel has many desirable properties that contribute greatly to its
widespread application in the making of parts and components across many
industrial sectors. Above all, because of its chromium content, it is extremely
resistant to corrosion. The 10.5% minimum content makes steel approximately 200
times more resistant to corrosion than steels without chromium. Other favorable
properties for consumers are its high strength and durability, its high and low
temperature resistance, increased formability and easy fabrication, low
maintenance, long-lasting, attractive appearance and it is environmentally friendly
and recyclable. Once stainless steel is put into service, it does not need to be
treated, coated or painted.

1. Corrosion resistant
2. High tensile strength
3. Very durable
4. Temperature resistant
5. Easy formability and fabrication
6. Low-maintenance (long lasting)
7. Attractive appearance
8. Environmentally friendly (recyclable)

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3.3 CAST IRON:
Cast iron is produced by smelting iron-carbon alloys that have a carbon content
greater than 2%. After smelting, the metal is poured into a mold. The primary
difference in production between wrought iron and cast iron is that cast iron is not
worked with hammers and tools. There are also differences in composition—cast
iron contains 2–4% carbon and other alloys, and 1–3% of silicon, which improves
the casting performance of the molten metal. Small amounts of manganese and
some impurities like sulfur and phosphorous may also be present. Differences
between wrought iron and cast iron can also be found in the details of chemical
structure and physical properties.
Although both steel and cast iron contain traces of carbon and appear similar,
there are significant differences between the two metals. Steel contains less than
2% carbon, which enables the final product to solidify in a single microcrystalline
structure. The higher carbon content of cast iron means that it solidifies as a
heterogeneous alloy, and therefore has more than one microcrystalline structure
present in the material.

It is the combination of high carbon content, and the presence of silicon, that
gives cast iron its excellent cast ability. Various types of cast irons are produced
using different heat treatment and processing techniques, including gray iron,
white iron, malleable iron, ductile iron, and compacted graphite iron.

3.3.1 PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON:

The mechanical properties of a material indicate how it responds under specific
stresses, which helps to determine its suitability for different applications.
Specifications are set by organizations such as the American Society for Testing

43
and Materials (ASTM) so that users can purchase materials with confidence that
they meet the requirements for their application. The most commonly used cast
gray iron specification is ASTM A48. In order to qualify cast products according
to their specifications, a standard practice is to cast a test bar along with the
engineered castings. The ASTM tests are then applied to this test bar and the
results are used to qualify the entire batch of castings. Specifications are also
important when welding cast iron parts together. The weld must meet or exceed the
mechanical properties of the material being welded together—otherwise, fractures
and failures can occur

A few common mechanical properties for cast iron include:

1. Hardness – material's resistance to abrasion and indentation

2. Toughness – material’s ability to absorb energy
3. Ductility – material's ability to deform without fracture
4. Elasticity – material's ability to return to its original dimensions after it has
been deformed
5. Malleability – material's ability to deform under compression without
rupturing
6. Tensile strength – the greatest longitudinal stress a material can bear without
tearing apart
7. Fatigue strength – the highest stress that a material can withstand for a given
number of cycles without breaking

3.4 SHEET METAL:

Sheet metal refers to metal that is formed into thin, flat sheets or coils. It is one
of the fundamental forms used in metalworking and fabrication processes due to its
versatility and ease of manipulation. Sheet metal is typically produced by rolling,

44
hammering, or extruding metal ingots or billets into thin layers.ThicknesSheet
metal is relatively thin compared to other forms of metal, typically ranging from
fractions of a millimeter to several millimeters in thickness. Material Sheet metal
can be made from various types of metals and alloys, including steel, aluminum,
copper, brass, and titanium. The choice of material depends on factors such as
strength, corrosion resistance, and cost. Flatness Sheet metal is generally flat and
uniform in thickness, making it suitable for applications where a smooth surface is
required.DuctilitySheet metal is often highly ductile, meaning it can be easily bent,
formed, and shaped without breaking. This property allows for a wide range of
fabrication techniques, including bending, cutting, punching, and
welding.ApplicationSheet metal is used in a wide range of industries and
applications, including automotive manufacturing, aerospace engineering,
construction, electronics, and household appliances. Common applications include
roofing, siding, panels, enclosures, chassis, and components for machinery and
equipment. Surface Finish Depending on the application and requirements, sheet
metal may undergo various surface treatments, such as painting, powder coating,
anodizing, or plating, to enhance its appearance, durability, and corrosion
resistance. Sheet metal fabrication processes involve cutting, bending, and
assembling sheet metal to create finished products or components. These processes
may be performed manually using hand tools or automated using specialized
machinery and equipment, such as laser cutters, press brakes, and CNC (Computer
Numerical Control) machines Overall, sheet metal is a versatile and widely used
material in manufacturing and fabrication due to its properties, making it ideal for
a diverse range of applications across different industries.

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3.5 BOLT:
Bolts are metal objects consisting of a cylindrical trunk with grooves such as
grooves that are similar to the grooves present inside a nut. In addition to this
threaded stem, there is also a forward current, which helps hold the fastener
together. As stated in the paragraph above, a bolt goes into a hole in a circular
thread of a nut, where the bolt grooves fit perfectly with the nut grooves. Then, at
rotational speed, the bolt nut is able to move the bolt up and over. Some bolts have
this threaded nature with their trunk; some have only the last part of its stem. There
is no clear distinction between bolts & nuts, and one can easily get confused
between them, but standardly, The bolts do not pass through a threaded area and
are fastened with the help of bolts; however, Used for components that have
already been damaged A bolt head also has a wide variety of shapes, and we need
to follow the same rules as we discussed in the above paragraph. The most
common shape for a bolt head is a hexagonal bolt head because this shape provides
the most granularities for the devices used in the case of extraction.

3.6 NUT:
1. A nut is a small metal object with a hole in the middle that has corrugated hole.
These curved holes are known as threads. Nuts are used as a fastening device. It
is important to note that evens though nuts are used as a fastening device, they
cannot be used without bolts.
2. To understand this, we have to understand the shape of walnuts. The outer part
of its body can be shaped either way, but it is mostly hexagonal cap or circular
in shape.

46
 CHAPTER 4

4.1 FABRICATION OF THE MACHINE:

There are few types of fabrication methods are done on
The machine. They are:

# Cutting.

# Drilling.

# Grinding.

Further Operation:
# Cleaning.

# Assembling.

4.2 Machining Operations:

In this project it is used to cut the raw material such as Plates, rod. This is done
by arc cutting machine.

4.2.1 Drilling:
1. Drilling is used to produce holes in objects. In this
2. Project the square type rod required the holes
3. Making rake assembly. These holes are done by vertical

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4.2.2 FINE GRINDING:
1. It is nothing but a grinding process, which is done as Smooth with fine
grains.
2. It is done by convention Grinding machine.

4.2.3 FURTHER OPERATION CLEANING:

1. It is the operation to clean the all machined parts without
2. Burrs, dust and chip formals. By meaning the parts they
3. Are brightened and good looking.

4.3 WELDING:-
Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused together
by means of heat, pressure or both forming a join as the parts cool. Welding is
usually used on metals and thermoplastics but can also be used on wood. The
completed welded joint may be referred to as a element.

4.3.1 OXY-FUEL WELDING:-

Also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy welding, uses fuel gases and
oxygen to weld and cut metals.

4.3.2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING:-

Also known as “Stick welding or electric welding”, uses an electrode that has
flux around it to protect the weld puddle. The electrode holder holds the electrode
as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric
contamination.

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4.3.3GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW):-
Also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a no consumable tungsten
electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric
contamination by an inert shielding gas such as argon or helium

4.3.4. GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW):-

Commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a wire feeding gun that feeds
wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based shielding gas or a mix of
argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from
atmospheric contamination.

4.3.5. FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW):-

Almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a special tubular wire filled
with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas, depending on the filler.

4.3.6. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW):-

It uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a blanket of granular
fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric
contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.

4.3.7. ELECTRO SLAG WELDING (ESW):-

It is a highly productive, single pass welding process for thicker materials
between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical
position.

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4.3.8. ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING (ERW):-
A welding process that produces coalescence of laying surfaces where heat to
form the weld is generated by the electrical resistance of the material. In general,
an efficient method, but limited to relatively thin material.

4.3.9. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW):-

Also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), flux shielded
arc weld in or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that
uses a consumable electrode covered with a flux to lay the weld. An electric
current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding
power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals
to be joined.
The work piece and the electrode melts forming a pool of molten metal (weld
pool) that cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode
disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer
of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.

Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's first and most popular welding
processes. To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the
work piece by a very light touch of the electrode to the base metal. The electrode is
then pulled back slightly. The orientation of the electrode to work piece is where
most stumble, if the electrode is held at a perpendicular angle to the work piece the
tip will likely stick to the metal which will fuse the electrode to the work piece
which will cause it to heat up very rapidly.

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 CHAPTER 5
5.1 CALCULATION:

5.1.1 DESIGN OF SPUR GEAR:

Note:

We are use the two spur gear same diameter, so that the design calculation
focused on one spur gear another is same specification

No. of teeth on pinion (n) = 50 no’s

Diameter (D) = 12 mm

Rotational speed (N) = 1000 rpm

Module (m) = 1 mm (The RS PRO Metric spur gear)

a. Pitch Diameter Dp = m*n = 1*50

D1 = 50 mm

b. Addendum a = 1 mm

a = 1 mm

c. Dedendum b = 1.25*m = 1.25*1

b =1.25 mm

d. Clearance c = b-a = 1.25 – 1

c = 0.3 mm

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e. Circular pitch Pc = πD / n = π*12/50

Pc = 3.1 mm

f. Face Width F = a+b = 1+1.25

F = 2.3 mm

g. Tooth thickness (T) = m/2 = 1/2

T = 0.5 mm

h. Power transmitting (P) = 2πN/60 = 2π1000/60

P = 104.71 Watts

I. Torque (T ) = 60*P/2πN = 60*104.71/2*π*1000

T = 1.0 Nm

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 CHAPTER 6

6.1 COST OF ESTIMATION:

SERIAL NUMBER MATERIALS REQUIRED COSTOF MATERIALS

1 MILD STEEL HOLLOW RS 600

SQUARE BAR
2 FASTENERS RS 200

3 Sheet metal RS 100

4 WORK FAIR RS 1000

5 DC MOTOR RS 700

6 SPUR GEARS RS 500

7 CUTTING TOOLS RS 300

8 DC ELECTRIC FAN RS 400

9 WELDING CHARGE RS 300

10 DRILLING CHARGE RS 300

TOTAL COST RS 4400

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6.2 ACTUAL PICTURE OF THE HOUSEHOLD DECOMPOSER:

Figure 7

54
 CHAPTER 7

7.1 CONCLUSION:
We had successfully designed pedal operated household decomposer. The
system is also useful for the organic fertilizer maker purpose. The purpose of this
technical study is to increase the sustainable solution for waste food, veg convert to
organic fertilizer using powered grinding machine. The project works with
satisfactory conditions we are able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the
odor free decomposer and also quality organic fertilizer. We have done to our
ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities. So that cost the cost
efficient household decomposer following conclusion can be drawn

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 CHAPTER 8

8.1 REFERENCES:
1. “A Review on Kinematic and Dynamic Analysis of Mechanism” by
Shrikant R. Patel, D. S. Patel, B. D. Patel Research Scholar, Associate
Professor, Assistant Professor.
2. A, Manpower-driven small-sized grinder, Yang Jianhua
3. Method and apparatus for converting human power to electrical power,
Linda Vasilovich, Richard Hilger
4. A Text Book of Theory of Machines by R. S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta
5. S.K. Hajra Choudhry and A.K. Hajra Choudhry, Workshop Technology
(VOL II).
6. W.A. Chapman, Workshop Technology.
7. Raghuvanshi, Workshop Technology.
8. K.R. Gopalakrishnan, Machine Drawing.
9. Anderson &Tatro, Shop Theory.
10. Gerling, All About machines.
11. Mechatronics and measurement systems – By: DAVID G. ALCIATORE
and MICHAEL B. HISTAND.
12. E. S., Aswathi, A. S., & Sheeja, P. P. (2014). Influence of organic manures
and biofertilizers on the yield of Amaranthus dubius. Asia Pacific Journal
of Environment Ecology and Sustainable Development, 1(1), 26-28.
13.Chang, J.I., Tsai, J.J. & Wu, K.H. (2005) Mathematical model for carbon
dioxide evolution from the thermophilic composting of synthetic food
wastes made of dog food. Waste Management, 25, 1037–1045.

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