Computer Network(CSC 503)

Shilpa Ingoley

Lecture 9
2. Physical Layer
2.1 Introduction to Communication Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2 Guided Transmission Media: Twisted pair, Coaxial, Fiber optics.
Functions of Physical layer

 Following are the various functions performed by the Physical layer

1. Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits.
The bits must be encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the
type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to signal.
 We assume data in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio or
video are stored in the computer memory as sequences of bits.
 You know computer is a digital Device so data is always in the form of
binary (0,1)
 Line Coding converts a sequence of bits to a Digital Signal.
 At the sender Digital data are encoded into a Digital Signal. So at the
receiver you need to decode the signal to retrieve the digital data.
Contd…
 Contd..

Signal Element Versus Data Element

 In data communications, our goal is to send data elements.
 A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of
information: this is the bit.
 In digital data communications, a signal element carries data
elements.
 A signal element is the shortest unit (time wise) of a digital signal.
 In other words, data elements are what we need to send: signal
elements are what we can send.
 Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carrier.
 Contd..

Line Coding schemes

1. Unipolar
2. Polar

1. Unipolar
All signal levels are on one side of the time axis –
either above or below
Eg: Non return to zero (NRZ)
 Contd..

2. Polar Coding
• The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
• Types
1. NRZ (Non return to zero)
• NRZ - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and negative for the other
• NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity determines the
value of a symbol. E.g. a “1” symbol inverts the polarity a “0” does not.
 Contd..

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines

the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
 Contd..

2. Return to zero (RZ)

 The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -.

 Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from low
to zero.
 The signal returns to a resting state (called zero) during the second half of each
bit.
 This scheme has more signal transitions (two per symbol) and therefore requires
a wider bandwidth.
 Contd..

• Polar RZ
 Contd..
3. Manchester Encoding
• Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low to
high. Uses only two voltage levels.
 Contd..

4. Differential Manchester Encoding

• Transition at start of a bit period represents zero
• No transition at start of a bit period represents one
 Contd…

Manchester Encoding

Differential Manchester Encoding

Transmission medium
Introduction to Communication

Transmission Media

• Transmission medium : The physical path between transmitter and receiver.

• Communication of electromagnetic waves is guided or unguided.

➢Guided media :: waves are guided along a physical path (e.g, twisted pair, coaxial
cable and optical fiber).

➢Unguided media:: means for transmitting but not guiding electromagnetic waves
(e.g., the atmosphere and outer space).
Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Electromagnetic spectrum, the entire distribution of electromagnetic radiation according
to frequency or wavelength.

• The electromagnetic spectrum comprises the span of all electromagnetic radiation and consists of many
subranges, commonly referred to as portions, such as visible light or ultraviolet radiation
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Contd…
Factors for Selection of Transmission Media
1. Cost & Ease of installation
2. Type of cable
3. No of conductors/connectors
4. Noise Absorption
5. Bandwidth
6. Radiation
7. Durability
8. Attenuation
9. Flexibility
10. Reliability
11. Number of receivers
12. Transmission Rate
Classes of transmission media
Twisted-pair cable

Some important points :

o Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
o Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
o Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
Repeater spacing is 2km.
Twisted Pair
• Consists of 2 copper conductors each having it’s own plastic insulation.
• Two wires are twisted around each other.
• One wire carries electrical signal and the other is the ground.
• Typically twisted pair is installed in building telephone wiring.
• Twisting is done to reduce the effect of noise on the pair. Each wire is closer to the noise source
for half time and farther for the other half.

• Types: 1. Unshielded twisted pair

2. Shielded twisted pair

Transmission Media 23
UTP(Unshielded twisted pair) and STP (Shielded twisted pair) cables

7.24
Contd…
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of insulated copper wires
typically about 1 mm thick.
The wires are twisted together in a helical form.
Flexible and cheap cable.
CAT 3, CAT 4, CAT 5, Enhanced CAT 5 , CAT 6 and Cat 7.
•UTP comes in several categories that are based on the number
of twists in the wires, the diameter of the wires and the material
used in the wires.
•Category 3 is the wiring used primarily for telephone
connections.
•Category 4 and 5 currently the most common Ethernet cables
used.
•Category 5e and 6 used in Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps),
Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps)
Shielded Twisted Pair
•STP cable has a metal foil or braided-
mesh covering that enhances each pair
of insulated conductors.

•The metal casing prevents the

penetration of electromagnetic noise.

•Materials and manufacturing

requirements make STP more
expensive than UTP but less
susceptible to noise
Categories of Twisted Pair
• EIA divides UTP into different category
Category Speed Use

Example: 10Base T, 100base T, 1000 Base T

Category of TP → for Data communication
Computer Network(CSC 503)
Shilpa Ingoley

Lecture 11
2. Physical Layer
2.1 Introduction to Communication Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2 Guided Transmission Media: Twisted pair, Coaxial, Fiber optics.
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is a copper-cored cable surrounded by a heavy shielding and is used to
connect computers in a network.
Outer conductor shields the inner conductor from picking up stray signal from the
air.
High bandwidth but lossy channel.
Repeater is used to regenerate the weakened signals.
 Contd…
Here the most common coaxial standards are as follows :
o 50-Ohm RG-8 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet
o 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet Thicknet : 10base5
o 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television Thinnet : 10base2
o 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.
Application of Coax
• Television distribution
• Long Distance telephone transmission
• Short-run computer system
• Local Area Network
 Three popular types of connectors for Coax :
(i) The BNC connector
(ii) The BNC T connector
(iii)The BNC terminator.

• To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use coaxial connectors.

• The most common type of connector is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman, or BNC
connectors.
Fiber Optics
• Made of glass, transmits signals in the form of light
• Light pulse can be used to signal a 1-bit and the absence of a pulse a 0 bit.
• Optical transmission has 3 components:
1. Transmission media(ultra thin glass fiber)
2. Light source(LED/laser diode) both emit light pulses when an electric current is
applied.
3. Detector(Photodiode) : Generates an electric pulse when light falls on it.
• By attaching an LED/laser to one end of the optical fiber and a photodiode to the
other, we can create a unidirectional data transmission system that →
1. Accepts an electrical signal, converts it to light pulses and transmits these light
pulses.
2. Reconverts the output to an electrical signal at the receiving end.
 Contd…

• A ray of light changes direction when going from a more dense to a less dense substance.
Fiber Optics Structure

Contains one or several glass fibers

at its core
Surrounding the fibers is a layer
called cladding

Loosely coupled Vs Tightly coupled

Fiber Optic Networks
A fiber optic ring(unidrectional) with active repeaters.
Fiber Optic Cable Connectors
• Subscriber Channel (SC) Connector
• Straight-Tip (ST) Connector
• MT-RJ Connector → (Same size as RJ45)
Transmission Mode of fiber Optics

Single-mode fiber
Carries light pulses along
single path
Uses Laser Light Source
Multimode fiber
Many pulses of light
generated by LED travel at
different angles
 Contd…

Fiber Sizes for Fiber Optic Cable

Type Core (m) Cladding (m) Mode

50/125 50.0 125 Multimode, graded index

62.3/125 62.5 125 Multimode, graded index

100/140 100.0 140 Multimode, graded index

8.3/125 8.3 125 Single mode

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cable
Advantages:
• Higher bandwidth, Greater capacity
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
• Light weight
• Greater immunity to tapping –Secure communication
• No Sparks in cut
• No Shock hazard Applications of Fiber Optic Cable
• Long life expectancy than coax and TP (1)Use as backbone networks(Internet)
because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective.
Disadvantages:
(2)Some cable TV companies use a
• Installation and maintenance combination of optical fibre and coaxial cable
• Unidirectional light propagation to create a hybrid network.
• High Cost (3) Local-Area Networks such as 100Base-
• Special Skills required FX network and 1000Base-X also use fibre-
optic cable.