Experiment

Title: Introduction of all components and equipments of fundamentals of electrical and electronics
engineering laboratory (FEEE Lab)
Objective: Identification of various components and equipments of of fundamentals of electrical
and electronics engineering laboratory (FEEE Lab)
Theory:
BREADBOARD
A breadboard is a board used to connect electronic components, such as wires, resistors, capacitors,
and coils, to conduct various experiments and projects.

RESISTOR
Resistors are electronic components that limit the flow of electric current. They can be broadly
classified into fixed and variable resistors, with further sub-classifications based on construction
and materials.
Types of Resistors
Fixed Resistors:
1. Carbon Composition: Made from a mixture of carbon particles and a binder, these are
one of the oldest and most common types.

2. Carbon Film: A thin layer of carbon is deposited on an insulating core.

3. Metal Film: A thin layer of metal or metal oxide is deposited on an insulating substrate.

4. Wire-wound: These resistors are made by winding a resistive wire (like nichrome) around
a non-conductive core.

5. Thick Film: A resistive paste is applied to a ceramic substrate and then fired.

6. Thin Film: A thin layer of resistive material is deposited on a substrate using techniques
like vacuum deposition.

7. Metal Oxide: A film of tin oxide is deposited on a glass rod.

Variable Resistors:
1. Potentiometers: These have three terminals and allow for a continuously variable
resistance by adjusting a wiper arm.

2. Rheostats: Similar to potentiometers, but typically used for higher currents and only have
two terminals.

3. Trimmers: Small, adjustable resistors often used for fine-tuning circuits.

Special Purpose Resistors:

1. Thermistors: Resistance changes with temperature.
a. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient): Resistance decreases with increasing
temperature.
b. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient): Resistance increases with increasing
temperature.

2. Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) or Photoresistors: Resistance varies with the amount
of light falling on them.
3. Varistors: Resistance changes with applied voltage.

4. Fusible Resistors: Designed to fail open (like a fuse) under overload conditions.

Colour Code of Resistor

 CAPACITOR
Capacitors are electronic components that store electrical energy in an electric field. They are
broadly classified into fixed and variable types, with numerous subtypes based on their dielectric
material and construction.

Types of Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors:
1. Ceramic Capacitors: These are small, inexpensive, and widely used for general-purpose
applications like decoupling, filtering, and timing circuits. They are also suitable for high-
frequency applications.

2. Electrolytic Capacitors: Known for their high capacitance values, these are polarized
capacitors (meaning they have a positive and negative terminal) and are commonly used in
power supply smoothing and filtering. There are aluminum and tantalum electrolytic
capacitors, each with their own characteristics.

3. Film Capacitors: These offer stable performance, low dielectric losses, and high
reliability. They are used in precision and audio circuits.

4. Mica Capacitors: These are known for their stable performance, low losses, and high
precision, making them suitable for high-frequency applications.
 5. Tantalum Capacitors: These offer high capacitance density in a small size and are often
used in compact electronic devices.

6. Polymer Capacitors: These offer improved performance and reliability compared to

traditional electrolytic capacitors.

7. Supercapacitors (Ultracapacitors): These have high energy storage and fast

charging/discharging capabilities, making them suitable for applications like energy
storage and backup power.

Variable Capacitors:
1. Air Variable Capacitors: These have air as the dielectric and are used for tuning in radio
circuits.

2. Trimmer Capacitors: These are small variable capacitors used for fine-tuning circuits
during calibration.
 INDUCTOR
Inductors, also known as chokes or reactors, are passive electronic components that store energy
in a magnetic field when electric current flows through them. They are used in various applications
such as energy storage, noise elimination, and voltage stabilization. Inductors are classified based
on their core material and construction.

Different Types of Inductors

1. Air Core Inductors: These inductors have no core material, with the coil wound around a
hollow former like plastic or ceramic. They offer low inductance and are suitable for high-
frequency applications due to their low core losses. Air core inductors are often used in
radio frequency (RF) circuits.

2. Iron Core Inductors: Iron core inductors utilize a core made of iron, which provides high
inductance and power handling capabilities. They are commonly used in audio frequency
(AF) circuits and power supplies. However, iron core inductors can have higher core losses
at high frequencies.

3. Ferrite Core Inductors: Ferrite core inductors use a ferrite material (a ceramic material
with magnetic properties) for the core. Ferrite cores offer a good balance of high
permeability (ability to concentrate magnetic flux) and low losses, making them suitable
for a wide range of frequencies. They are commonly used in RF and switching power
supply applications.
4. Powdered Iron Core Inductors: These inductors use a core made of iron powder particles
that are bonded together with a binder. Powdered iron cores offer high inductance and can
handle higher currents than ferrite cores. They are often used in power electronics
applications.

5. Toroidal Core Inductors: Toroidal inductors have a core in the shape of a doughnut
(torus). They offer high inductance and efficiency, with a strong magnetic field confined
within the core. Toroidal inductors are commonly used in switch-mode power supplies and
audio equipment.

6. Laminated Core Inductors: Laminated core inductors use a core made of stacked thin
steel sheets. This lamination helps reduce eddy current losses, making them suitable for
high-frequency applications. They are often used in transformers and power inductors.

7. Multilayer Chip Inductors: Multilayer chip inductors are surface mount devices (SMDs)
with multiple layers of conductive material separated by dielectric layers. They offer small
size and high inductance density, making them suitable for high-density circuit
boards. They are commonly used in RF circuits, power supplies, and signal processing
applications.
 8. Bobbin Inductors: Also known as drum inductors, bobbin inductors have a coil wound
around a cylindrical core called a bobbin. They offer good structural support and are used
in various applications like transformers and filters.

9. Coupled Inductors: Coupled inductors consist of two or more inductors that are
magnetically linked, meaning a change in current in one inductor induces a voltage in the
other. They are used in applications requiring isolation between circuits or in transformers.

10. Variable Inductors: Variable inductors allow for adjustment of the inductance
value. They are used in tuning circuits and other applications where inductance needs to be
changed.

DIODE
Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in one direction while blocking it in
the other. They come in various types, each with specific characteristics and applications.

Types of Diodes
1. PN Junction Diode: This is the basic diode, formed by a p-type and n-type
semiconductor. It acts as a one-way valve for current, allowing it to flow easily from the p-
side (anode) to the n-side (cathode) but blocking it in the reverse direction.
2. Zener Diode: Designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region, Zener diodes are used
for voltage regulation and reference applications. They maintain a nearly constant voltage
across them even when the current changes.

3. Schottky Diode: These diodes use a metal-semiconductor junction, resulting in a lower

forward voltage drop and faster switching speeds compared to PN junction diodes. They
are often used in high-frequency and power rectifier circuits.

4. Light-Emitting Diode (LED): LEDs emit light when current passes through them. They
are widely used for displays, indicators, and lighting.

5. Photodiode: Photodiodes are light-sensitive diodes that convert light into an electrical
current. They are used in light detection and measurement applications.

6. Laser Diode: Laser diodes produce coherent light (lasers) and are used in optical storage
devices, laser pointers, and other applications where a focused, monochromatic light source
is needed.

7. Tunnel Diode: These diodes exhibit a region of negative resistance, allowing them to be
used as high-speed switches and oscillators.
 8. Varactor Diode: Varactor diodes act as voltage-controlled capacitors. Their capacitance
changes with the applied voltage, making them useful in tuning circuits and frequency
control applications.

TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power. It is
one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. There are two main types of
transistors: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Field-Effect Transistors (FETs). BJTs utilize
both electrons and holes as charge carriers, while FETs use only one. Within these categories,
several specific types exist.

Types of Transistors
1. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs):
a. NPN Transistor: A layer of P-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two
layers of N-type semiconductor.

b. PNP Transistor: A layer of N-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two

layers of P-type semiconductor.

2. Field-Effect Transistors (FETs):

a. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET): Known for its
ease of integration into circuits and operation in different modes (enhancement,
depletion, etc.).
i. N-channel MOSFET: Uses negatively charged electrons as the primary
charge carrier.
 ii. P-channel MOSFET: Uses positively charged holes as the primary charge
carrier.

b. Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET): Characterized by high input impedance

and low noise, suitable for sensitive analog circuits.
i. N-channel JFET: Uses negatively charged electrons as the primary charge
carrier.

ii. P-channel JFET: Uses positively charged holes as the primary charge
carrier.

3. Other types of transistors:

a. Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT): Combines the characteristics of
MOSFETs and BJTs, often used in power switching applications.

b. Schottky Transistor: Features a Schottky diode between the base and collector,
resulting in faster switching speeds.

c. Phototransistor: Sensitive to light, used for light detection and switching

applications.
 d. Uni-junction Transistor (UJT): Used in switching and timing circuits.

e. Darlington Transistor: An integrated circuit consisting of two BJTs, providing

high current gain.

MULTIMETER
A multimeter is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. A typical
multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current, in which case can be used as
a voltmeter, ohmmeter, and ammeter.

Types of Multimeters
1. Analog multimeters: These use a needle and scale. They are less precise for accurate
readings but are useful for observing trends. According to Testbook, analog multimeters
are less accurate, but they are more robust and less susceptible to damage from voltage
spikes.

2. Digital multimeters: These provide precise numerical readings on an LCD screen. They
are generally easier to read, more accurate, and may have advanced features. Digital
multimeters are more accurate and easier to use.
 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy between circuits using
electromagnetic induction. They are commonly used to adjust voltage levels, either increasing
('step up') or decreasing ('step down'), while maintaining the same frequency.

Types of Transformers
1. Step-Up Transformer: A step-up transformer is an electrical device that increases the
voltage from its primary (input) side to its secondary (output) side. It does this by
increasing the voltage while simultaneously decreasing the current, maintaining roughly
the same power level on both sides. Step-up transformers are crucial for efficient long-
distance power transmission, as they allow for high voltage and low current, minimizing
energy loss.

2. Step-Down Transformer: A transformer designed to reduce the voltage from primary to

secondary is called a step-down transformer. The transformation ratio of a transformer will
be equal to the square root of its primary to secondary inductance (L) ratio.
a. Two Terminal Step-Down Transformer: A two-terminal step-down transformer
is an electrical device that reduces the voltage of an alternating current (AC) signal.
Unlike three-phase or multi-tapped transformers, a two-terminal step-down
transformer is typically a single-phase device used in applications requiring a
simple voltage reduction.
 b. Center Tapped Transformer: A center-tapped transformer is a transformer with a
tap in the middle of its secondary winding, creating two separate output voltages
that are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase (180 degrees out of phase). This
configuration allows for the derivation of two different voltages from a single
transformer, and it's commonly used in full-wave rectifiers and other applications
requiring balanced voltages.

3. Autotransformer: An autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one winding.

The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix refers to the single coil acting alone. In an
autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both the primary
winding and secondary winding sides of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary
transformer has separate primary and secondary windings that are not connected by an
electrically conductive path between them.

VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the electrical potential difference, or voltage, between
two points in an electrical circuit.

Types of Voltmeters
1. Analog Voltmeters:
a. PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil): A common type that uses a coil
suspended in a magnetic field. Current passing through the coil causes it to move,
indicating the voltage.
 b. Moving Iron (MI): These voltmeters use a piece of iron that is attracted to a coil
when current flows through it. The movement of the iron is proportional to the
voltage.

c. Electrostatic: These voltmeters measure voltage based on the electrostatic force

between charged plates. They don't require current to operate and are useful for
measuring high voltages.

d. Electrodynamometer: These can measure both AC and DC voltages and are often
used as a standard for calibration.

2. Digital Voltmeters:
a. Ramp Type: Uses a ramp voltage to compare with the input voltage.
 b. Integrating Type: Measures the average value of the input voltage over a period.

c. Successive Approximation: Uses a binary search algorithm to determine the

voltage value.

d. Dual Slope Integrating: Combines the advantages of both ramp and integrating
types.

3. Other Classifications:
a. AC Voltmeter: Specifically designed to measure alternating current (AC) voltage.
 b. DC Voltmeter: Specifically designed to measure direct current (DC) voltage.

AMMETER
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. Electric currents are
measured in amperes (A), hence the name. For direct measurement, the ammeter is connected in
series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An ammeter usually has
low resistance so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the circuit being measured.

Types of Ammeters
1. Analog Ammeter:
a. PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil): PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil) ammeters are a type of ammeter characterized by a moving coil within a
magnetic field, where the coil's movement is proportional to the current being
measured.

b. Moving Iron (MI): A MI (Moving Iron) type ammeter is an electrical instrument

used to measure both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). It works
by utilizing the magnetic attraction or repulsion between a coil and a piece of iron
to deflect a pointer, indicating the current's magnitude on a calibrated scale.

c. Electrodynamic: This type uses a fixed coil and a moving coil. The interaction
between the magnetic fields of these coils generates a torque that moves the
 pointer. They are known for high accuracy and are suitable for measuring both AC
and DC currents.

2. Digital Ammeter: A digital ammeter is an electronic instrument designed to measure and

display the strength of electric current in amperes (A) using a digital readout. This provides
a precise and easily readable value, unlike analog ammeters that utilize a needle and a
calibrated scale.

3. Other Classifications:
a. AC Ammeter: An AC ammeter is a device used to measure alternating current
(AC) in an electrical circuit. It is designed to accurately display the root-mean-
square (RMS) value of the current, which represents the heating effect of the AC
current.

b. DC Ammeter: A DC Ammeter (or DC Ammeter) is an instrument used to measure

the intensity of direct current (DC) flowing in an electrical circuit.
 WATTMETER
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric active power (or the average of the rate
of flow of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit.

DC POWER SUPPLY
A direct current (DC) power supply is an integral piece of equipment used in many applications
that require the conversion of alternate current (AC) voltage into DC voltage. Unlike AC, where
the current periodically changes direction, DC allows current to flow consistently in one direction.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument; it is used to obtain waveforms when
the different input signals are given. In the early days, it is called as an Oscillograph. The
oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals over time; thus, the voltage and time
describe a shape and it is continuously graphed beside a scale. By seeing the waveform, we can
analyze some properties like amplitude, frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval, and etc.
 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE (DSO)
A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is an oscilloscope which stores and analyses the input
signal digitally rather than using analog techniques. It is now the most common type of
oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and measurement features
which it typically provides.

SIGNAL GENERATOR
A signal generator is one of a class of electronic devices that generates electrical signals with set
properties of amplitude, frequency, and wave shape. These generated signals are used as a stimulus
for electronic measurements, typically used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing
electronic or electroacoustic devices, though it often has artistic uses as well.

Types of Signal Generator

1. Function Generator: A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment
used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies.
Some of the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine
wave, square wave, triangular wave and sawtooth shapes. These waveforms can be either
repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger source). Function
generators are used primarily for analog circuits.

2. Arbitrary waveform generator: An arbitrary waveform generator (AWG or ARB) is a

sophisticated signal generator that generates arbitrary waveforms within published limits
of frequency range, accuracy, and output level. Unlike a function generator that produces
a small set of specific waveforms, an AWG allows the user to specify a source waveform
in a variety of different ways. An AWG is generally more expensive than a function
generator and often has less bandwidth. An AWG is used in higher-end design and test
applications.
 3. Pulse Generator: A pulse generator is either an electronic circuit or a piece of electronic
test equipment used to generate rectangular pulses. Pulse generators are used primarily for
working with digital circuits.

SOLDERING IRON
A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so that it can flow
into the joint between two workpieces.

SOLDERING PASTE
Solder paste is a preparation of powdered solder in sticky flux paste primarily used to solder
surface mount components onto printed circuit boards.

SOLDERING WIRE
Soldering Wire is a fusible metal alloy used to create a permanent bond between metal
workpieces. Solder is melted in order to wet the parts of the joint, where it adheres to and connects
the pieces after cooling.
 DESOLDERING PUMP
Desoldering Pump or Solder Sucker is the tool for removing solder from electronic components
and circuit boards. The high-quality desoldering pump is designed to make the process of
desoldering quick and easy, saving you time and effort.

SYMBOLS OF SOME ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS