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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.07:ME2-1STSEM-2021-2022

College: Engineering
Campus: Bambang

DEGREE PROGRAM BSME COURSE NO. ME 2

SPECIALIZATION Mechanical COURSE TITLE Thermodynamics 1
YEAR LEVEL 2nd Year TIME FRAME 9Hrs WK NO. 15-17 IM NO. 7

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Introduction to Cycle Analysis: Second Law of Thermodynamics

Introduction to Gas and Vapor Cycles
Real Gases

II. LESSON TITLE

1. Introduction
2. Review on the Different Laws of Thermodynamics
3. Carnot Cycle
4. Three Process cycle
5. Introduction to Gas and Vapor Cycles
6. Real Gases

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This lesson provides the students an in-depth understanding of the Carnot and Three process cycle.
.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Explain the second law of thermodynamics.
• Differentiate the different laws of thermodynamics.
• Explains what is a Carnot cycle and a Three process cycle.
• Calculate problems on Carnot Cycle and Three process cycle.
• Explain Gas and Vapor Cycles
• Identify Real Gases.
• Differentiate Ideal gas from Real gas.

V. LESSON CONTENT

1. Introduction:

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and energy. At its heart are laws that describe how
energy moves around within a system, whether an atom, a hurricane, or a black hole. The first law
describes how energy cannot be created or destroyed, merely transformed from one kind to another.
The second law, however, is probably better known and even more profound because it describes
the limits of what the universe can do. This law is about inefficiency, degeneration, and decay. It tells
us all we do is inherently wasteful and that there are irreversible processes in the universe. It gives
us an arrow for time and tells us that our universe has an inescapably bleak, desolate fate.
Despite these somewhat deflating ideas, the ideas of thermodynamics were formulated in a time of
great technological optimism – the Industrial Revolution. In the mid-19th century, physicists and
engineers were building steam engines to mechanize work and transport and were trying to work out
how to make them more powerful and efficient.

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Many scientists and engineers – including Rudolf Clausius, James Joule, and Lord Kelvin –
contributed to the development of thermodynamics, but the father of the discipline was the French
physicist Sadi Carnot. In 1824 he published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, which laid down
the basic principles, gleaned from observations of how energy moved around engines and how
wasted heat and useful work were related.
The second law can be expressed in several ways, the simplest being that heat will naturally
flow from a hotter to a colder body. At its heart is a property of thermodynamic systems called entropy
– in the equations above it is represented by "S" – in loose terms, a measure of the amount of disorder
within a system. This can be represented in many ways, for example in the arrangement of the
molecules – water molecules in an ice cube are more ordered than the same molecules after they
have been heated into a gas. Whereas the water molecules were in a well-defined lattice in the ice
cube, they float unpredictably in the gas. The entropy of the ice cube is, therefore, lower than that of
the gas. Similarly, the entropy of a plate is higher when it is in pieces on the floor compared with when
it is in one piece in the sink.
A more formal definition for entropy as heat moves around a system is given in the first of the
equations. The infinitesimal change in entropy of a system (dS) is calculated by measuring how much
heat has entered a closed system (δQ) divided by the common temperature (T) at the point where
the heat transfer took place.
The second equation is a way to express the second law of thermodynamics in terms of
entropy. The formula says that the entropy of an isolated natural system will always tend to stay the
same or increase – in other words, the energy in the universe is gradually moving towards disorder.
Our original statement of the second law emerges from this equation: heat cannot spontaneously flow
from a cold object (low entropy) to a hot object (high entropy) in a closed system because it would
violate the equation. (Refrigerators seemingly break this rule since they can freeze things too much
lower temperatures than the air around them. But they don't violate the second law because they are
not isolated systems, requiring a continual input of electrical energy to pump heat out of their interior.
The fridge heats the room around it and, if unplugged, would naturally return to thermal equilibrium
with the room.)
This formula also imposes a direction on time; whereas every other physical law we know of
would work the same whether time was going forwards or backward, this is not true for the second
law of thermodynamics. However long you leave it, a boiling pan of water is unlikely to ever become
a block of ice. A smashed plate could never reassemble itself, as this would reduce the entropy of
the system in defiance of the second law of thermodynamics. Some processes, Carnot observed, are
irreversible.
Carnot examined steam engines, which work by burning fuel to heat a cylinder containing
steam, which expands and pushes on a piston to then do something useful. The portion of the fuel's
energy that is extracted and made to do something useful is called work, while the remainder is the
wasted (and disordered) energy we call heat. Carnot showed that you could predict the theoretical
maximum efficiency of a steam engine by measuring the difference in temperatures of the steam
inside the cylinder and that of the air around it, known in thermodynamic terms as the hot and cold
reservoirs of a system respectively.
Heat engines work because heat naturally flows from hot to cold places. If there was no cold
reservoir towards which it could move there would be no heat flow and the engine would not work.
Because the cold reservoir is always above absolute zero, no heat engine can be 100% efficient.
The best-designed engines, therefore, heat steam (or other gas) to the highest possible temperature
then release the exhaust at the lowest possible temperature. The most modern steam engines can
get to around 60% efficiency and diesel engines in cars can get to around 50% efficiency. Petrol-
based internal combustion engines are much more wasteful of their fuel's energy.

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The inefficiencies are built into any system using energy and can be described
thermodynamically. This wasted energy means that the overall disorder of the universe – its entropy
– will increase over time but at some point, reach a maximum. At this moment in some unimaginably
distant future, the energy in the universe will be evenly distributed and so, for all macroscopic
purposes, will be useless. Cosmologists call this the "heat death" of the universe, an inevitable
consequence of the unstoppable march of entropy.

Alok Jha Sun 1 Dec 2013 08.00 GMT https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/dec/01/what-is-the-second-

law-of-thermodynamics

2. Review on the Different Laws of Thermodynamics

There are several rules and processes in thermodynamics, hence, to simplify all the rules or
regulations, laws of thermodynamics are introduced. There is a total of four thermodynamics laws.

• Zeroth law of thermodynamics

• The first law of thermodynamics
• The second law of thermodynamics
• Third law of thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are in thermal
equilibrium with another thermodynamic system, then they all are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Let’s consider, any three systems,
• System A
• System B
• System C

Fig. 6 Thermal equilibrium – The zeroth law of thermodynamics

Now, if System A and System B are in thermal equilibrium and also system A and system C also
in thermal equilibrium, then system A, system B, and system C will be in thermal equilibrium.

In 1935, Ralph H. Fowler discovered the title” Zeroth Law of thermodynamics”.

Fowler came upon one text- “every physical quantity must be measurable in a
numeric term. There was no discovery of any term like “temperature” before 1935.
And the main thing, all three laws of thermodynamics were already discovered
before 1935 without defining temperature. Fowler realized that thermal equilibrium
Sir Ralph Howard Fowler is a very important phenomenon and it should be defined before the 1st law of
thermodynamics. The Zeroth Law is very important which gives the definition of
temperature or it shows that some physical quantity named “temperature” also exists. According to
Fowler, this law should be kept first for a proper understanding of thermodynamics laws. But already so
many books were published with the first law, second law, and third law. So, changing the numbers of

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these laws can create a lot of confusion. Thus he was forced to adopt the number” zero” for his law. And
finally, this law was named” Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics”.

Application:
1. To measure human body temperature.

2. To measure atmospheric temperature

3. Temperature measurement for industrial application
4. Temperature measurement in air conditioner
5. Temperature measurement in refrigerator
6. In food processing industries

First Law of Thermodynamics

This first law is related to the conservation of energy. It states that energy can never be created
or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form of energy to another form of energy.
• To understand, let us take some water in a container. There will not be any change when the
water in a normal condition. We will heat the water and we will see after heating, water
changed into vapor. Here, water is changed into vapor due to heat input.
• If we put coal in the furnace of the power plant, then only we get electricity through the
process. Coal has stored thermal energy which is used to get heat energy. So, energy is the
same, but it is changed into different forms.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in three ways:

1. Second Law of thermodynamics for heat engine (Kelvin Planck’s statement)
“It is impossible to construct a device (operating in a cycle) which works on a single
heat source and converts all of its heat completely into work”.
This Kelvin Planck’s statement wants to say that, “a heat engine must exchange the heat
with at least two thermal reservoirs, one at higher temperature and other at a lower
temperature, then only the engine will operate” or Perfect engine with 100% efficiency is
impossible.

Heat Engine that violates the Kevin Heat Engine satisfying First Law and
Planck’s statement of Second Law. Kevin Planck’s statement of Second Law.

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2. Second Law of thermodynamics for heat pump/refrigerator (Clausius’s statement)

“It is impossible to construct a device (operating in a cycle) that can transfer heat from
cold body to the hot body without absorbing any work”

Or

“Heat cannot flow itself from a colder body to a hotter body”

It is very easy to understand, just see the above picture, Heat Q 1 is at a lower temperature body and it
is saying that it will not travel to a higher temperature body without absorbing any heat.
Consider a heat pump as shown in the picture below. This heat pump absorbs heat from the lower
temperature body and rejects heat to the higher temperature body without a supply of any work. This
phenomenon is possible according to the First Law of thermodynamics. But it does not obey the second law
of thermodynamics. Thus, such a device can not transfer heat from a lower temperature body to a higher
temperature body without any supply of work to it. So according to Clausius’s statement of the second law of
thermodynamics, this type of heat pump is not possible.

Now see the image below. This type of heat pump is possible according to the statement/definition of the
second law of thermodynamics because it is consuming some work to transfer heat from a lower temperature
body to a higher temperature body. Thus, this heat pump obeys the 1st Law as well as the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics.

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3. Second Law of thermodynamics based on Entropy.

“In all the spontaneous processes, the entropy of the universe increases”

Spontaneous processes are those processes that occur on their own. For example, gas spreads
in the entire room on its own, Hot coffee cools down automatically on its own, ice kept on the table will
melt on its own, etc.
Now, what is entropy? You all know about solids, liquids, and gases.

Solids have closed arrangements of molecules. Liquids show more movement of molecules
compared to that solid, and gases show the maximum movement of molecules as shown in the above
picture.
Now, this movement of molecules is known as disorder or randomness. And the measurement of
this disorder is known as entropy. Thus, entropy is the measurement of the disorder of a system. The
statement of the second law of thermodynamics simply says that- “If the process is occurring on its own,
then the disorder of the universe always increases.”

This law is related to entropy. As per this law, entropy is always increased in an isolated system.
• It means, there should be an external energy source to transfer heat energy from a lower
temperature region to a high-temperature region.
• For example, if you switched ON the air conditioner, then only it will cool the room. Hence,
external power is required to run the air conditioner or to transfer heat from room to outside.

Thermodynamics second law

Third Law of Thermodynamics

Based on this third law of thermodynamics, when the temperature of a state approaches
absolute zero, entropy approaches a constant value.
• The entropy of a pure crystal, as per the third law of thermodynamics, is zero, at absolute zero
temperature.
• The entropy of any system is the measurement of the disorder.

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Example of the third law of thermodynamics,

• Let’s take a piece of ice, and cooled it to absolute zero temperature. So, entropy at that
absolute temperature will be zero. It is theoretical and practically it is not possible.
• Now, increase the temperature of that ice, what will happen? It will start to melt and entropy
will increase.
• Let’s increase the temperature again to a little, you will see the entire ice is converted into
water and entropy will be further increased.
• Further increase in temperature of the water, will be changed into steam. Now, in this case,
molecules move faster and entropy will further increase.

3. CARNOT CYCLE

Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle as adopted for an ideal heat engine. It consists of two isothermal
processes (expansion and compression) and two adiabatic processes (expansion and compression). The
cylinder and piston of the engine are considered as perfect non-conductor of heat but the cylinder cover
head is a good conductor of heat. The hot body at a higher temperature is brought in contact with the
bottom 'B' of the cylinder. The cylinder is fitted with a weightless and frictionless piston.
The French engineer Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot was the first scientist who realizes the problem
of the efficiency of heat engines and invented the Carnot cycle. The pressure-volume (p-v) and
temperature-entropy (T-S) graph are shown in fig.

(a) pV diagram (b) T-S diagram

From the above two p-V and T-S graphs, the horizontal axis represents volume 'v' and entropy 'S'
and the vertical axis represents pressure 'p' and temperature 'T'.Let, engine cylinder contains m kg of air
at its original condition represented by point 1 on the p-v and T-S diagrams. At this point, let p1,v1 , and
T1 be the pressure, temperature, and volume.

A Carnot heat engine is a theoretical engine that operates on the Carnot cycle. The basic model
for this engine was developed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. The Carnot engine model was
graphically expanded by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 and mathematically explored by Rudolf
Clausius in 1857, work that led to the fundamental thermodynamic concept of entropy.
Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. A thermodynamic cycle occurs when
a system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its initial state. In the process
of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a heat
engine.
A heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in
the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be reversed. The
system may be worked upon by an external force, and in the process, it can transfer thermal energy from
a cooler system to a warmer one, thereby acting as a refrigerator or heat pump rather than a heat engine.

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In 1824, Sadi Carnot gave the exact theoretical explanation of the engine. He explained the
different parts of the engine and the processes involved in the working of the engine. During this theory
on the Carnot engine, he made an assumption, so this engine is an ideal engine (hypothetical engine)
and designed to be 100% efficient.
Note: Carnot Engine is just an ideal engine (or hypothetical engine). No engine has 100 percent
efficiency according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

ANALYSIS OF THE CARNOT CYCLE

First Stage (Isothermal Expansion)

Let, the unit mass of perfect gas is admitted into the cylinder at the beginning of the outward
moment of the piston, and the pressure, temperature, volume of the gas at a point 1 is p 1,v1, and
T1 respectively. The bottom 'B' of the cylinder can be covered by an insulating cap. During the movement
of the piston, the heat Q1 is supplied to the perfect gas and the gas expands isothermally keeping
temperature T1 constant until the volume v2 and pressure p2. The heat supplied by the hot body is fully
absorbed by the air and is utilized by doing external work. So, heat is supplied during this process is
equal to the work done during this process. This isothermal expansion is represented by the curve 1-2
on the p-v and T-S diagram.
So, work done by the air

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1

Since there is no change of temperature from point 1 to 2, so, (T1=T2) and as per the first law of
thermodynamics, the internal energy is also zero (E=0).
Then the heat supplied

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𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑄1−2 = 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1

𝑊1−2 = 𝑄1−2 = 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln 𝑟

𝑉2
𝑟 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉1

Then change of entropy

𝑄1
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 =
𝑇1
𝑄1−2 = 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑇1 (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )

Second Stage (Isentropic Expansion)

As the piston moves outward, the gas expands adiabatically till the pressure p 3, volume v3, and
temperature T2 and the hot body is removed from the bottom of the cylinder 'B' and the insulating cap is
brought in contact. In this process, there is no interchange of the heat of the surrounding gasses (Q = 0)
The reversible adiabatic expansion is represented by the curve 2-3 on the PV diagram.
So, work done by the air

𝑝3 𝑉3 − 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑊2−3 =
1−𝑘
𝑚𝑅𝑇3 − 𝑚𝑅𝑇2
𝑊2−3 =
1−𝑘
𝑚𝑅(𝑇3 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊2−3 =
1−𝑘

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 ; 𝑇3 = 𝑇4

The change of internal energy E = - W and there is no change of entropy, so S2 = S3.

Third Stage (Isothermal Compression)

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Now the piston moves inward the gas and insulating cap I.C. is also removed from the bottom of
the cylinder and brings the cold body in its contact. The air pressure is compressed isothermally keeping
temperature constant T3 from v3 to v4. It means at a point 4 temperature T4 is equal to T3. That's why heat
is rejected to the cold body is equal to the work done on the air. The isothermal compression curve is
represented by 3-4 on the p-v curve.
So, work done by the air

𝑉4 𝑉4 𝑉3
𝑊3−4 = 𝑄3−4 = 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑝3 𝑉3 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑉4

𝑊3−4 = 𝑄3−4 = 𝑄𝑅 = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln 𝑟

(𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇)

𝑉3
𝑟 = 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉4

Here change of entropy E = 0 and change of entropy

𝑄3
𝑆3 − 𝑆4 =
𝑇4

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇4 (𝑆3 − 𝑆4 )

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇3 (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )

(𝑆2 = 𝑆3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆1 = 𝑆4 ) ; 𝑇4 = 𝑇3

Fourth Stage (Isentropic Compression)

As the piston moves inwards the gas insides the cylinder is compressed adiabatically till the
pressure p1, volume v1, and temperature T1 such that the gas returns to its original condition to complete
the Carnot cycle and insulated cap I.C. is brought in contact with the bottom of the cylinder B. The
temperature of air increases from T4 to T1 and not heat is absorbed or rejected by the air. The reversible
adiabatic compression is represented by the curve 4-1 on the p-v and T-S diagram
So, work done by the air for adiabatic compression

𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝4 𝑉4
𝑊4−1 =
1−𝑘
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 − 𝑚𝑅𝑇3
𝑊4−1 =
1−𝑘

𝑚𝑅 (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 )
𝑊4−1 =
1−𝑘

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇3 = 𝑇4

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From the above discussion, it is seen that the total internal energy decrease in reversible adiabatic
expansion shown in curves 2-3 is equal to the increase in internal energy during reversible adiabatic
compression 4-1. So, the net effect of the whole Carnot cycle is zero.
Net work is done,

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 − 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln − 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉1 𝑉4

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln 𝑟 − 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln 𝑟

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑅 ln 𝑟 (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 )

Or

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑇1 (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ) − 𝑇3 (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )(𝑇1 − 𝑇3 )

And Carnot efficiency

The thermal/cycle efficiency e is defined as the fraction of the heat supplied to a

thermodynamic cycle that is converted into work.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑒=
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

Work from the TS plane

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1

𝑉4 𝑉4 𝑉3
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑝3 𝑉3 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑉4

From process 2-3,

𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑇2 𝑉3

From process 4-1,

𝑇4 𝑉1 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑇1 𝑉4

But 𝑇4 = 𝑇3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 = 𝑇2

Therefore,
𝑉2 𝑘−1 𝑉1 𝑘−1
[ ] =[ ]
𝑉3 𝑉4

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Then,
𝑉3 𝑉2
=
𝑉4 𝑉1

𝑉3
𝑄𝑅 = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉4

𝑉2
𝑄𝑅 = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉1

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln − 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1

𝑉2
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 ) 𝑚𝑅 ln
𝑉1

𝑉2
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 ) 𝑚𝑅 ln 𝑉1
𝑒 = =
𝑄𝐴 𝑉
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln 2
𝑉1

𝑇1 − 𝑇3
𝑒 =
𝑇1

𝑇3 𝑇𝐿
𝑒 =1− =1−
𝑇1 𝑇𝐻

𝑇𝐿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇𝐻 = ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

From the Carnot cycle efficiency equation, T1 is greater than T3. For the smaller value of T3, the
thermal efficiency will be maximum. That’s why the Carnot cycle has the highest thermal efficiency of all
heat engines.

Work from the pV plane,

𝑉2 𝑝3 𝑉3 − 𝑝2 𝑉2 𝑉4 𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝4 𝑉4
𝑊 = ∑ 𝑊 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 + + 𝑝3 𝑉3 𝑙𝑛 +
𝑉1 1−𝑘 𝑉3 1−𝑘

𝑉2 𝑚𝑅(𝑇3 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑉4 𝑚𝑅 (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 )
𝑊 = ∑ 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑛 + + 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 𝑙𝑛 +
𝑉1 1−𝑘 𝑉3 1−𝑘

Mean Effective Pressure (Pm or mep)

Mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure that acting through one stroke, will do
on the piston the net work of the single cycle.
A quantity of special interest in connection with reciprocating engines is the mean effective
pressure (mep), which is defined as the constant pressure acting on the engine piston for its work stroke
that would result in the network of the cycle. It is a measure of the effectiveness of utilizing the cylinder
volume. Thus, we have

𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝑃𝑚 = = =
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝐷 𝑉3 − 𝑉1

VD = displacement volume, the volume swept by the piston in one stroke.

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The Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑉2
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉1

𝑉3
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉2
𝑉3
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉1

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑉3
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉4

𝑉4
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟𝑘 =
𝑉1

𝑉3
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉1

The isentropic compression ratio, 𝑟𝑘 , is the compression ratio most commonly used.

𝑝1 𝑝2
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟𝑝 = =
𝑝4 𝑝3

Cycle/thermal Efficiency in terms of rk and rp

Denoting rk, the isentropic compression or expansion ratio as,

𝑉4 𝑉3
𝑟𝑘 = =
𝑉1 𝑉2

The Carnot cycle efficiency may now be given as,

1
𝑒 = 1− 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘

This equation shows that the Carnot cycle thermal efficiency increases as 𝒓𝒌
increases. This implies that the high thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle is obtained at the
expense of large piston displacement, that is, large cylinder size.

Denoting 𝒓𝒑 , the pressure ratio as

𝑝1 𝑝2
𝑟𝑝 = =
𝑝4 𝑝3
The Carnot cycle efficiency may also be given as,

1
𝑒 = 1− 𝑘−1
𝐾𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.4
𝑟𝑝 𝑘
This equation indicates that the high Carnot cycle efficiency is obtained at the
expense of a large rp , This would mean that a Carnot cycle must operate with high peak
cycle pressure to obtain high cycle efficiency.
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Why Carnot cycle can't be used in actual practice?

During the isothermal process, the piston should move very slowly within the cylinder. So that
insufficient time is available for the transfer of heat to the working medium within the cylinder during
expansion or from the working medium within the cylinder during isothermal compression.
But during the adiabatic process, the piston moves very fast within the cylinder. So that no time
is available for the transfer of heat.
So, a sudden change of speed (from low speed to high speed) of the piston is required to make
the cycle efficiency. But this is not possible due to the direction of the cylinder and the piston is none a
conductor of heat and the cover head of the cylinder is a good conductor. Again, there is a weightless
and frictionless piston fitted on a cylinder which is practically impossible. That’s why the Carnot cycle
cannot be used in actual practice.

https://www.mechanicaltutorial.com/4-stages-of-carnot-cycle-improving-thermal-efficiency

CARNOT CYCLE
Examples:
1. A Carnot engine receives 130 Btu of heat from a hot reservoir at 700°F and rejects 49 Btu of heat.
Calculate the temperature of the cold reservoir.

𝑇1 − 𝑇3 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑒 = =
𝑇1 𝑄𝐴

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑇1 = 700℉ + 460 = 1160°R

Then:
1160 − 𝑇3 130 − 49
=
1160 130
𝑇3 = 437.23 °R
𝑡3 = 437.23 °R − 460
𝒕𝟑 = −𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕℉

2. A Carnot requires 35kJ/s from the hot source. The engine produces 15 kW of power and the
temperature of the sink is 26℃ . What is the temperature of the hot source in ℃?

𝑇1 − 𝑇3 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑒 = =
𝑇1 𝑄𝐴

𝑇1 − (26 + 273) 15
=
𝑇1 35

𝑇1 = 523.25 𝐾 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟓℃

3. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2 lb of air between the limits of 70°F and 500°F. The pressure
at the beginning of the Isothermal expansion is 400 psia and at the end of Isothermal expansion
is 185 psig. Determine (a) volume at the end of Isothermal compression, (b) ∆S during an
Isothermal process, (c)QA, (d) QR, € W, (f) e, (g) the ratio of expansion during Isothermal heating
and the overall ratio of expansion, and (h) the mean effective pressure.

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m = 2 lb
p1 = 400 psia
T1 = 960°R
p2 = 185 psig +14.7 =199.7 psia
T3 = 530 °R

Point 1:
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 (2)(53.34)(960)
𝑉1 = = = 1.778 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑝1 (400)(144)

Point 2:
𝑚𝑅𝑇2 (2)(53.34)(960)
𝑉2 = = = 3.561 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑝2 (199.7)(144)
Point 3:
𝑘 1.4
𝑇 𝑘−1 530
𝑝3 = 𝑝2 [ 3 ] = (199.7) [ ]1.4−1 = 24.57 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇2 960

𝑚𝑅𝑇3 (2)(53.34)(530)
𝑉3 = = = 15.72 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑝3 (24.97)(144)
Point 4:
𝑉1 1.778
𝑉4 = 𝑉3 [ ] = (15.72) [ ] = 7.849 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉2 3.561
(a)
𝑽𝟒 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟒𝟗 𝒇𝒕𝟑 − −𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
(b)
𝑉2 (2)(53.34) 3.561
∆𝑆1−2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑙𝑛 [ ] = 𝑙𝑛 [ ] = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟐 𝑩𝒕𝒖/°𝑹
𝑉1 778 1.778
1 Btu = 778 ft-lb
R = 53.34 ft-lb/lb-°R
(c)
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑇1 (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ) = 960°R (0.0952 Btu/°R) = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 𝑩𝒕𝒖
(d)
𝑉4 𝑉4 𝑉3
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑝3 𝑉3 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑉4

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇3 (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ) = −(530)(0.0952) = −𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟔 𝑩𝒕𝒖

Note: negative sign indicates rejection of heat.

(e)
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅 =91.43 𝐵𝑡𝑢− 50.46 𝐵𝑡𝑢 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 𝑩𝒕𝒖
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(f)
𝑇1 − 𝑇3 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 40.67 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑒 = = = 𝑥 100% = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟏 %
𝑇1 𝑄𝐴 91.43 𝐵𝑡𝑢

(g)
𝑉2 3.561
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = =𝟐
𝑉1 1.778

𝑉3 15.72 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟒
𝑉1 1.778 𝑓𝑡 3

(h)
778 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 40.67 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ( 1 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ) 1 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑙𝑏
Pm = = = 3 3
𝑥 2
= 15.88 2 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟖𝟖 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝑉𝐷 𝑉3 − 𝑉1 15.72 𝑓𝑡 − 1.778 𝑓𝑡 144 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛

4. Three-Process Cycle

Please watch, Thermodynamics: Triangle Cycle @ https://youtu.be/_-ek0HYLT6E

Example: Ten cu. ft of helium at 20 psia and 80°F are compressed isentropically 1-2 to 80 psia. The
helium is then expanded polytropically 2-3 with n=1.35 to the initial temperature. An
isothermal 3-1 returns the helium to the initial state. Find T2, V2, p2, QA, QR, W,∆S3-1, and pm
or mep.
Solution:
p1= 20 psia
T1 =540°R
V1= 10 ft3
p2 = 80psia
T3 = 540°R

𝑝1 𝑉1 (20)(144)(10)
𝑚= = = 0.1382 𝑙𝑏
𝑅𝑇1 (386.04)(540)

RHelium = 386.04 ft-lb/lb-°R ( From Thermo 1 by Sta Maria, page 158)

Point 2:
𝑘−1 1.666−1
𝑝2 𝑘 80 1.666
𝑇2 = ( ) = 540 ( ) = 𝟗𝟑𝟗. 𝟗°𝐑
𝑝1 20
1 1
𝑝1 𝑘 20 1.666
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 ( ) = 10 ( ) = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟓𝟏 𝐟𝐭 𝟑
𝑝2 80

Point 3:
𝑛 1.35
𝑇3 𝑛−1 540 1.35−1
𝑝3 = 𝑝2 ( ) = (80) ( ) = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂
𝑇2 939.9

1 1
𝑝2 𝑛 80 1.35
𝑉3 = 𝑉2 ( ) = (4.351) ( ) = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐 𝐟𝐭 𝟑
𝑝3 9.435

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𝑘−𝑛 1.666 − 1.35 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 [ ] = (0.754) [ ] = −0.6808
1−𝑛 1 − 1.35 𝑙𝑏°𝑅

𝑄𝐴 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = (−0.6808)(540 − 939.9) = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟔𝟑 𝑩𝒕𝒖

𝑉1 (0.1382)(386.04)(540) 10
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln = ln = −𝟐𝟕. 𝟖𝟐 𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝑉3 778 21.2

W = Q A − Q R = 37.63 Btu − 27.82 Btu = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝑩𝒕𝒖

Q R −27.82 𝐵𝑡𝑢
∆𝑆3−1 = = = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟓 𝑩𝒕𝒖/°𝐑
𝑇1 540°R

W 9.81 𝐵𝑡𝑢 (778)

𝑝𝑚 = = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝑉3 − 𝑉2 (21.2 − 4.351)144

5. Introduction to Gas and Vapor Cycles

Now that we understand the 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics, we can consider some
important applications and the equipment used to generate mechanical power from heat. In this
lesson, we will consider power cycles.
Vapor Cycles:
During the cycle the working fluid exists as a vapor for part of the cycle and a liquid for the
other part. Key components include a condenser and a boiler.
Gas Cycles:
During the entire cycle the working fluid remains in the gas phase.
No phase changes occur.
Closed Cycles:
After each pass through the cycle, the working fluid remains within the system.
Open Cycles:
In an open cycle, one heat exchanger is missing. After the working fluid passes
through three processes, it is discarded and replaced by fresh working fluid.

The purpose of power cycles is to convert heat into work as efficiently as possible. Recall
that areas on PV Diagrams can be interpreted as boundary or shaft work for certain types of
systems.

Closed Systems Open Systems

Internally Reversible Processes Internally Reversible Processes

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.07:ME2-1STSEM-2021-2022

What is the main difference between gas and vapor power cycles?
In vapor power cycle, the working fluid exists in vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in
liquid phase during another part whereas in a gas power cycle, the working fluid remains in the
gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle.

What is gas cycle?

As the name implies, a gas cycle is one in which the working fluid is a gas. Power cycles that
operate with gas as the working fluid are used in reciprocating petrol engines and rotating gas turbine
engines. The gas used as the working fluid within these engines is air.

What is vapor power cycles?

Vapor power cycles are used in steam power plants. In a power cycle heat energy (released by
the burning of fuel) is converted into work (shaft work), in which a working fluid repeatedly performs
a succession of processes. In a vapor power cycle, the working fluid is water, which undergoes a
change of phase.

What is the gas power cycles?

Most modern gas power cycles involve the use of open loop internal or external combustion
engines. The engine operates on a closed loop thermodynamic cycle and the working fluid is a fixed
mass of atmospheric air. 2. This air behaves as an ideal gas throughout the cycle.

6. Real Gases

Real gases are non-ideal gases whose molecules occupy space and have interactions;
consequently, they do not adhere to the ideal gas law. To understand the behavior of
real gases, the following must be taken into account:

• compressibility effects;
• variable specific heat capacity;
• van der Waals forces;
• non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects;
• issues with molecular dissociation and elementary reactions with variable
composition
Real gases are any gases that do not obey the ideal gas law, they are gases with
compressibility factor Z (pV/RT) different than 1. The non-ideal properties of gases become more
important as (a) pressure increases, (b) temperature decreases, or (c) conditions approach the
critical point. The widely published compressibility chart shows how temperature and pressure
affect the compressibility factor and how every gas can become a real (non-ideal) gas under some
pressure and temperature conditions.

What are real gas examples?

Any gas that exists is a real gas. Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, helium
etc. Real gases have small attractive and repulsive forces between particles and ideal gases do
not. Real gas particles have a volume and ideal gas particles do not.

Real and Ideal Gases

An ideal gas is one that follows the gas laws at all conditions of temperature and pressure.
To do so, the gas needs to completely abide by the kinetic-molecular theory. The gas
particles need to occupy zero volume and they need to exhibit no attractive forces whatsoever
toward each other. Since neither of those conditions can be true, there is no such thing as an
ideal gas. A real gas is a gas that does not behave according to the assumptions of the kinetic-
molecular theory. Fortunately, at the conditions of temperature and pressure that are normally
encountered in a laboratory, real gases tend to behave very much like ideal gases.

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purposes only and not for commercial distribution.”
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.07:ME2-1STSEM-2021-2022

Which gas is most real?

The real gas that acts most like an ideal gas is helium. This is because helium, unlike most
gases, exists as a single atom, which makes the van der Waals dispersion forces as low as
possible. Another factor is that helium, like other noble gases, has a completely filled outer
electron shell. As a result, it has a low tendency to react with other atoms.
The ideal gas composed of more than one atom is hydrogen gas. Like a helium atom, a
hydrogen molecule also has two electrons, and its intermolecular forces are small. The electrical
charge is spread across two atoms. As gas molecules get larger, they behave less like ideal
gases. Dispersion forces increase and dipole-dipole interaction may occur. Dipole - dipole
interactions occur when the partial charges formed within one molecule are attracted to an
opposite partial charge in a nearby molecule.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Problem Solving Activity

Directions: Please answer the problem neatly and accurately. Write your solutions legibly on a
short bond paper. Use extra sheets if necessary.

1. Assume that we are to design an air-standard Carnot cycle according to the following
specifications:

Maximum cycle temperature= 1700 K

Minimum cycle temperature = 340 K
Minimum cycle pressure = 101 kPa
Heat added to cycle = 250 kJ/kg

Determine:
a. The cycle thermal efficiency
b. The isentropic compression ratio
c. The pressure ratio
d. The maximum cycle pressure in MPa
e. The mep in KPa on the basis of 1 kg of air.

Draw the pV and TS diagrams.

2. Show that the thermal/cycle efficiency of the Carnot cycle in terms of isentropic compression
1
ratio 𝒓𝒌 is given by 𝑒 = 1 − 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘

Brainwriting Activity

1. Why Carnot cycle is said to be the most efficient thermodynamic cycle?

2. Why Carnot cycle can't be used in actual thermal power plants?

VII. EVALUATION (Synchronous Assessment through MS Teams Platform)

Module 7 Quiz will be uploaded in our MS Teams. The schedule will be announced in our GC. Please
ask questions in our GC if there are topics that you are difficult to understand for the instructor to explain
thru online consultation.

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the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced for educational
purposes only and not for commercial distribution.”
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.07:ME2-1STSEM-2021-2022

VIII. ASSIGNMENT
Directions: Please answer the following problems neatly and accurately. Draw the PV and TS
diagrams of the different processes. Write your solutions legibly in a short bond paper

1. The working substance for a Carnot cycle is 8 lb of air. The volume at the beginning of
isothermal expansion if 9 ft3 and the pressure is 300 psia. The ratio of expansion during
the addition of heat is 2 and the temperature of the cold body is 90°F. Find (a) QA, Btu (b)
QR, Btu (c) V3, ft3 (d) p3, psia (e) V4, ft3 (f) p4, psia (g)pm, psia (h) the ratio of expansion
during the isentropic process, and (i) the overall ratio of expansion.

2. A three-process cycle of an ideal gas, for which, cp = 1.064 and cv= 0.804 kJ/kg-K, is
initiated by an isentropic compression 1-2 fro, 103.4 kPa, 27C to 608.1 kPa. A constant
volume process 2-3 and a polytropic 3-1 with n= 1.2 completes the cycle. Circulation is
steady rate of 0.905 kg/s, compute (a) QA, kJ/s (b) W, kJ/s (c) e, % (d) pm
IX. REFERENCES

A) Book/Printed Resources

Cengel, Y.A., (2017). Fundamentals of thermal-fluid sciences,5th Edition

Cengel, Y. A. and Boles M. A., (2002). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 7th ed.,
McGraw-Hill,
Eastop, T.D & Mc Conkey, A. (2009). Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists
Huang, F.F. (1988). Engineering Thermodynamics: Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Ed.
Moran, M.J. (2014). Engineering thermodynamics. 8th Edition: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Moran, M. J. et. al. (2011). Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 7th ed., Wiley.
Powers, J. M., Lecture Notes on Thermodynamics. Department of Aerospace and Mechanical
Engineering University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, Indiana 46556-5637 USA
updated 20 March 2019, 11:13 am
Sta. Maria, H.B. (2008). Thermodynamics 1&2
Sonntag R. E., Borgnakke C., Van Wylen G. J., (2003) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics,
6th ed., Wiley.
Wu, Chih. (2006). Thermodynamics and Heat Powered Cycles: A Cognitive Engineering
Approach
B) e-Resources
Second Law of Thermodynamics. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/dec/01/what-is-the-second-law-of-
thermodynamics

Please Read!!!!!
Hard copies of all learning activities and assignments are to be submitted at the Engineering Office. Please
take a clear photo of what you have submitted and convert it a pdf with proper file name and turn it in at your
MS Teams that served as proof and for you to have a second copy in case your activities and assignments will
be lost. Write your Name, Course/year, Subject, Instructor’s name, Chapter Title, and Learning Activity No.&
Assignment No. (LA No. and ASS No. will be based on the Instructional Module No.) at the upper portion of
your paper. Learning activities and Assignments will be done separately. Use short bond paper and place it on
a large brown envelope with a complete label and send it to your instructor (Engr. Larry P. Remolazo, CP#
09166217169) at Nueva Vizcaya State University, College of Engineering, 3702 Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya.

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