Ph.

D Course-Work Assignment

Paper I: Research Methodology

SUBMITTED BY
Sangeeta Sharma

Registration No: -
IN
Department: - Sociology

SUBMITTED TO

Faculty of…………………………..

MADHAV UNIVERSITY, PINDWARA (SIROHI)

RAJASTHAN
2025
 Declaration

I, Sangeeta Sharma,Ph.D scholar in the subject of ……………………………………., hereby declare and

affirm that the assignments being submitted by me in the department of
……………………………………….Madhav University,Pindwara (Sirohi) Rajasthan, in partial fulfillment of
the conditions of course- work completion, are original & self prepared and have been duly checked for
plagiarism, if any in case, any material contained in the assignments are found to be plagiarism from any
published source, only I shall be held responsible for the same.

Dated: - Signature of the scholar

Full Name:- Sangeeta Sharma

Department:- Sociology
Q1 what is meant by Research? Explain the various definition and characteristics of Research.

Introduction: - Research is a systematic process of investigating a topic to discover new facts, information, or
understanding. It involves gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to increase knowledge about a
specific subject. Research is an investigation into a topic or idea to discover new information. There’s no all-
encompassing definition for research because it’s an incredibly varied approach to finding discoveries. For
example, research can be as simple as seeking to answer a question that already has a known answer, like
reading an article to learn why the sky is blue. Research can also be much broader, seeking to answer questions
that have never before been asked. For instance, a lot of research looks for ways to deepen our collective
understanding of social, physical, and biological phenomena. Besides broadening humanity’s knowledge,
research is a great tool for businesses and individuals to learn new things. Research is the careful consideration
of a study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the
American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and
control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.” Inductive methods analyze an
observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated
with qualitative research, and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

Definition of Research

1. According to Payton (1979), Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to
gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships.

2. According to Kothari (2004), defines that the research is an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its development. The systematic approach concerning generalizations and formulation
of a theory is also research.

3. clarke and clarke definition of research : Research is a careful, systematic and objective investigation
conducted to obtain valid facts, draw conclusions and established principles regarding an identifiable problem
in some field of knowledge.

4. According to P.M. Cook: “Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of
research should be an authentic, verifiable and contribution to knowledge in the field studied.”
5. According to George J. Mouly who defines research as, “The systematic and scholarly application of the
scientific method interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of social studiesal problems; conversely, any
systematic study designed to promote the development of social studies as a science can be considered
research.”

6. According to V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory: “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

7.According to Encyclopedia of Social Science : “Research is the manipulation of things concepts or symbols
for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the
practice of an art.”

8. Robert Ross defines “Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidence for the
purpose of gaining knowledge.”

9. Robert Ross defines “Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidence for the
purpose of gaining knowledge.”

10. Longman Dictionary of contemporary English: Research as a serious study of a subject that is intended
to discover new facts or test ideas.

Characteristics of Research: - Research methodology is characterized by several key features. It should

be systematic, empirical, logical, cyclical, analytical, critical, replicable, and objective

1. Systematic:

Research follows a structured and organized approach, with defined steps and procedures.

2, Empirical:

Research relies on observable evidence and data collected through direct observation or experimentation.

3, Logical:

Research uses valid reasoning and principles to draw conclusions and interpretations.

4. Cyclical:
Research is a continuous process, often starting with a problem and leading to new questions and further
investigation.

5. Analytical:

Research involves careful examination and interpretation of data to identify patterns, relationships, and
trends.

6. Critical:

Research requires careful evaluation of evidence and assumptions, guarding against bias and errors.

7. Replicable:

Research methods and procedures should be clearly documented so that others can replicate the study and
verify the findings.

8. Objective:

Research strives to minimize personal biases and subjective interpretations, aiming for neutral and unbiased
findings.

9. Generalizable:

Research aims to draw conclusions that can be applied to a wider context or population beyond the specific
study sample.

10. Valid and Verifiable:

The research findings should be accurate, reliable, and able to be confirmed through further investigation.

Q2. Explain any two of the following :-

(A) Observation Method

(B) Characteristics of a good questionnaire

 (c) Characteristics of a good questionnaire.

(A) Observation Method

The observation method in research involves systematically watching and recording behaviors, events, or
phenomena to gather data. It's a technique used to collect real-time information about subjects under study,
allowing researchers to gain insights and draw conclusions based on what they directly observe. This method
can be used in various fields, including psychology, social sciences, and market research.

1. Systematic Data Collection:

Researchers carefully plan what to observe, how to record it (using tools like checklists, logs, or video/audio
recordings), and how to analyze the data.

2. Direct Observation:

This method relies on the researcher's sensory perception to gather information, minimizing reliance on self-
reported data or interpretations.

3. Naturalistic or Controlled Settings:

Observations can occur in natural environments or under controlled laboratory conditions, depending on the
research question and goals.

Types of Observation:

Different approaches exist, such as participant observation (where the researcher is involved in the situation)
and non-participant observation (where the researcher observes from a distance).

Applications:

Observation is used to describe phenomena, generate hypotheses, validate other data collection methods, or
study people, processes, and cultures.

Examples:
Psychology:

A researcher might observe children's interactions in a classroom to study social development.

Social Sciences:

An anthropologist might live with a tribe to understand their culture through participant observation.

The steps of the Observation Method

1. Defining the Research Objective: Clearly define the purpose and goals of the observation. Determine
what you want to observe and the specific research questions you aim to answer through the
observation.

2. Determining the Variables: Identify the key variables or behaviors you will observe and record.
These variables should be relevant to your research objective and provide meaningful data for analysis.

3. Choosing the Observation Setting: Select the appropriate setting or environment for the observation.
Consider factors such as accessibility, relevance to the research objective, and ethical considerations.

4. Developing Observation Protocols: Establish a structured plan for conducting the observation.
Define the procedures, guidelines, and criteria for observing and recording data. This includes
specifying the observation techniques, data collection methods, and specific instructions for the
observers.

5. Conducting the Observation: Implement the observation according to the defined protocols.
Carefully observe the selected subjects, behaviors, or events while recording the data accurately.
Maintain objectivity and avoid any interference or bias during the observation process.

6. Recording and Analyzing Data: Record the collected data promptly and systematically. Ensure that
the data is organized, labeled, and stored securely. After the observation, analyze the data using
appropriate statistical or qualitative techniques to draw meaningful conclusions and insights.

Characteristics of a good questionnaire

Meaning of Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a research instrument used by any researcher as a tool to collect data or gather
information from any source or subject of his or her interest from the respondents It has a specific goal to
understand topics from the respondent's point of view. It consists of a set of written or printed questions with
a choice of answers devised for survey or statistical studies. It is the most popular type of primary data
collection, which can be used to gather both quantitative data (in the form of numerals), and qualitative data
(in the form of words and figures) or mixed data, which is a continuation of both quantitative and qualitative
data.

Types of Questionnaires

In a broader sense, there are two types of questionnaires:

1. Structured questionnaire: It is also known as a closed questionnaire where such questions are asked,
which can be answered as yes or no. It includes less number of researchers and a large number of
respondents, and it has definite and concrete questions. These types of questionnaires are formal and are
prepared well in advance.

2. Unstructured questionnaire: It is based on more open questionnaires. An open questionnaire means

recording more data, as the respondents can point out what is more important for them in their own words
and methods, as responses can go to any length. This type of questionnaire is quite flexible and can be
applied to several areas of study as they do not require much Planning and time.

Characteristics of a questionnaire

1. Sequence of questions

A proper series of questions should be followed to increase the rate of response to the questions. Therefore, it
is necessary to develop a structured sequence of questions that contain questions in the sequence. The sequence
of questions is like screening questions, warm-up questions, skip questions, transition questions, complex
questions, and classification questions, etc. For example, if you want to design a questionnaire for motivation
and buying experience then you are required to ask questions firstly related to demographics, and questions
related to the time spent in the different sections of the store and lastly about their motivation behind every
purchase.

2. Uniformity
The uniformity of questions is essential to keep respondents involved in the questionnaire until the end.
Consistency of questions plays an important role, especially when you want to collect information about
personal opinions, demographic data, or facts from the respondents. Better responses can be obtained only by
keeping the uniformity and standardized format of the questionnaire. This helps in the statistical analysis of the
data. If you are putting random questions together, then it will become difficult for you to analyze the
responses of those questions.

3. Exploratory

Exploratory characteristics of the questionnaire help you in collecting qualitative data. You can ask any
question as long as it is related to the subject. The exploratory nature of a questionnaire helps you in getting
detailed information about the topic. For example, you can send questionnaires to women to learn about their
spending habits. You can ask different types of questions, such as close-ended or open-ended questions, to
obtain different outcomes.

4. Easy to understand

A good survey is easy to understand. It should be designed in such a way so that everyone can read and
understand the questions irrespective of their education level. This is an essential characteristic of a
questionnaire.

Qualities of a Good Questionnaire

1. Limited Number of questions: The number of questions in the questionnaire should be as limited as
possible, and questions should be asked only related to the purpose of the inquiry.

2. Proper sequence of questions: Questions must be placed in the proper sequence, like simple and direct
questions must be placed at the start of the questionnaire, and hard and indirect questions must be placed at
the last.

3. Simplicity: The language of the questions should be simple and easy to understand, and the questions
should be short. Complex questions must be avoided.

4. Instructions: A good questionnaire must have clear and proper instructions for filling out the forms.
5. No undesirable questions: Undesirable questions like personal questions, which can offend the
respondents, must be avoided.

6. Non-controversial questions: The questions should be asked in such a way that they can be answered
impartially.

7. Calculations: Questions involving calculations must be avoided, as they can be complex and time-
consuming.

8. Objective-type questions: More focus should be given to objective-type questions, whereas subjective-
type questions should be avoided.

Q3 Discuss the essential steps in research report writing?

Report writing is a structured method of documenting and presenting information in a clear and concise
manner. Reports are used for various purposes, including presenting research findings, providing information
about a particular topic, or summarizing data and statistics. In this article, we are going to know about the
different steps in writing a report, the types of report writing, and the layout of the research report.

1. Define the Purpose and Scope of the Report: Determine the reason for writing the report and what you
want to achieve with it. This will help you to focus your research and determine what information to include in
the report.

2. Gather Data and Information: Collect relevant data and information from various sources, such as books,
articles, interviews, and surveys. Ensure that the information you gather is accurate and relevant to the purpose
of the report.

3. Analyze the Data: Organize and analyze the data to identify trends, patterns, and relationships. This will
help you to draw meaningful conclusions and make recommendations.

4. Outline the Report Structure: Create an outline of the report’s structure, including the main sections, sub-
sections, and headings. This will help you to organize the information and ensure that the report is easy to read
and understand.

5. Write the Report: Start by writing the introduction, which should provide background information and
explain the purpose of the report. Then, write the main body of the report, including the results, discussion, and
conclusion. Finally, write the executive summary and conclusion, which should summarize the main findings
and recommendations of the report.

1. Format and Present the Report: Format the report to ensure that it is visually appealing and easy to read.
Choose appropriate charts, tables, and graphs to present the data and make sure they are easy to understand.

2 Review and Edit the Report: Review the report for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Ensure that
the report is well-structured and that the information is presented in a clear and concise manner. Make
revisions as needed to improve the overall quality of the report.

3. Finalize the Report: After you have reviewed and edited the report, it’s time to finalize it. This can include
adding a title page, table of contents, references, and appendices, if necessary.

Q4 Explain the techniques of interview in detail as method of data collection?

Interviews, telephonic or personal, are used to collect data from a group of people on various topics. The
fundamental purpose of an interview as a method of data collection as verbal responses is to gather information
thoroughly. The interview’s goals could include exchanging ideas and experiences, extracting data on a wide
range of topics, and allowing the interviewee to reflect on his past, define his present, and consider his future
options. Various types of interviews are conducted to obtain research data. An interview can be structured or
unstructured, depending on whether a formal questionnaire was developed and the questions were asked in a
predetermined order.

The method of collecting data in terms of verbal responses

The fundamental purpose of an interview as a data collection is the method that is best suited for evaluating
human attributes.

It has clear implications for the identification and treatment of emotional issues.

It is one of the most important pillars on which counseling methods are built.

It gives data to supplement other data collection methods.

It can check the information collected through correspondence methods and observation.

Types of interviews
An interview can be classified as direct or indirect depending on whether the goal of the questions
asked is expressed clearly or disguised. When these two criteria are combined, four different types of
interviews emerge. A structured and direct interview, for example, can be structured and direct,
unstructured and direct, structured and indirect, or unstructured and indirect, semi-structured.

1. Structured Direct Interview: A formal questionnaire with non-disguised questions, a

questionnaire that attempts to “get the facts” is the most common type of interview used to acquire
descriptive information during a consumer survey. If the marketing search manager for a television set
manufacturer wants to discover how many and what types of people favor different models of
television cabinets, he can construct a series of questions that specifically inquires about this
information.

2. Unstructured Direct Interview: In an unstructured-direct interview, the interviewer is merely

given general direction on the type of information that is desired. He is free to ask the appropriate direct
questions to obtain this information, as well as to conduct and organise each interview as he sees fit. In
exploratory research, unstructured-direct interviews are frequently used. Many research projects that
use a formal questionnaire to conduct final interviews include an exploratory phase during which
respondents are contacted, and unstructured interviews are done.

3. Structured indirect interview: In a structured indirect interview, the questions are predetermined
and organized systematically. The study’s goal has yet to be determined.

4. Unstructured-indirect interview: In an unstructured indirect interview, the questions aren’t

predetermined, and the study’s objective isn’t made clear.

5. Semi-structured interviews: In research initiatives, semi-structured interviews are frequently used

to verify data obtained from other sources. Semi-structured interviews allow for probing and
explanation of replies, but they normally require participants to answer a list of preset questions. Semi-
structured interviews were employed to investigate and clarify participants’ responses to this study.
These helped participants return to the interview’s main topic. Probes for elaboration and clarity were
crucial. As a result, it’s the best instrument for this research.

6. Telephonic Interview: A telephonic interview is a data collection method in which the interviewer
speaks with the respondent over the phone using the questionnaire that has been created. Standardised
questionnaires with closed-ended questions are usually used. The motive of a telephonic interview is to
be brief and focuses on gathering specific information.
7. Personal interview: In a personal or face-to-face interview, all respondents are asked similar
questions in the same order using a standard structured questionnaire as per the scheduled interview. A
personal interview is a two-way conversation. In this way, the interviewer and the respondent
understand the skills of a person, and the respondent understands the company’s requirements and the
work structure. This standard structure is determined by the questions, language, and order, and the
interview is conducted face-to-face.

Advantages

Structured interviews concentrate on the accuracy of various responses, allowing for the collection of
well-ordered data.

Different respondents provide different responses to the same set of questions, and the results can be
studied as a whole.

They can be utilized to contact a significant portion of the target audience.

The standardization provided by structured interviews simplifies the interview process.

Semi-structured interview questions are provided before the scheduled interview, giving the researcher
time to prepare and examine the questions.

It is somewhat adaptable yet adheres to the research requirements.

Because unstructured interviews are informal, it is quite easy for researchers to establish a cordial
connection with the participants. This allows you to acquire extremely detailed insights without
exerting much effort.

Participants can clear up any issues they have regarding the questions, and the researcher can use every
chance to explain why they want better answers.

If there is doubt on both sides or a particular piece of information is discovered that is noteworthy,
more detailed answers can be acquired.

During the interview, the researcher can observe and analyse the interviewee’s body language while
taking notes.

Disadvantages
The breadth of the evaluation of the obtained results is limited.

The importance of accuracy trumps the importance of detail in information.

Respondents are compelled to choose from a set of possibilities.

When the guidelines for conducting interviews are not strictly followed, comparing two distinct
responses becomes challenging. Because no two questions would have the same structure, it will be
impossible to compare or deduce outcomes.

Researchers take their time conducting these interviews because there is no organization to the process.

Unstructured interviews’ trustworthiness is questioned due to the lack of a standardized set of questions
and rules.

There are chances that they will take a long time and cost a lot of money.

They may cause suspicion in the interviewee since they are self-conscious and do not answer truthfully.

Conclusion

Finally, choose which interview method to use to establish what the research project’s specific goals
are and how those needs may be effectively satisfied within cost limits. As a result, there are various
factors to consider while determining which form of interview method to employ. However,
determining what type of data is required and how generalizable the data must be is a critical step in
deciding which interview approach to use. Research strategies that allow the researcher to interview
many people have the advantage of enabling the researcher to make solid statistical judgments about
the population under investigation, assuming enough interviews are conducted.
Q.5 Discuss the process of classification and tabulation in data analysis?

Classification and tabulation are essential processes in data analysis for organizing and presenting
information. Classification involves grouping data based on shared characteristics, while tabulation
systematically arranges classified data into rows and columns within a table. These steps help in
making data more understandable, facilitating comparisons, and enabling meaningful insights.

Classification:

Purpose: To group data into meaningful categories based on specific criteria.

Types:

Qualitative Classification: Groups data based on attributes or qualities (e.g., classifying customers by
gender or product type).

Quantitative Classification: Groups data based on numerical values or quantities (e.g., classifying
students by age or income).

Chronological Classification: Groups data based on time (e.g., arranging sales figures by month or
year).

Geographical Classification: Groups data based on location (e.g., grouping sales data by region).

Characteristics of Good Classification:

Exhaustive: All data items must be included in a class.

Mutually Exclusive: Each data item should fit into only one class.

Unambiguous: Classes should be clearly defined to avoid confusion.

Homogeneous: Items within a class should share similar characteristics.

Tabulation:
Purpose:

To present classified data in a structured table format, making it easier to understand and compare.

Process:

Involves arranging classified data into rows and columns with appropriate headings.

Benefits:

Clarity and Conciseness: Presents data in a compact and organized manner.

Comparability: Allows for easy comparison between different categories or groups.

Efficiency: Facilitates quick identification of patterns and trends.

Types of Tables:

Simple tables (presenting data based on a single characteristic) and complex tables (presenting data
based on multiple characteristics).

Key Elements:

Title: A clear and concise description of the table's content.

Headings: Specific and brief descriptions for rows and columns.

Body: The actual data arranged in rows and columns.

Footnotes: Explanatory notes for clarification.

Source: Indication of where the data originated.

Relationship between Classification and Tabulation:

Classification precedes tabulation. Data must be grouped into classes before it can be systematically
arranged in a table. Tabulation is the final step in compiling data after classification, forming the basis
for further statistical analysis.