SECTION  1 SECTION 1

 Plan and Prepare

Objectives
Recognize situations in which
refraction will occur.
Refraction
Preview Vocabulary Identify which direction light
will bend when it passes from
Key Terms
refraction index of refraction
Latin Word Origins The term refrac- one medium to another.
tion comes from the Latin verb refraxio,
Solve problems using Refraction of Light
meaning “to break up.” At first glance, Snell’s law. Look at the tiny image of the flower that appears in the water droplet in
this root may not seem to apply to the Figure 1.1. The blurred flower can be seen in the background of the photo.
definition of refraction. However, Why does the flower look different when viewed through the droplet?
refraction the bending of a wave front
students can use it as a device to as the wave front passes between two This phenomenon occurs because light is bent at the boundary between
substances in which the speed of the the water and the air around it. The bending of light as it travels from one
remember the difference between wave differs medium to another is called refraction.
reflection and refraction. A wave front If light travels from one transparent medium to another at any angle
FIGURE 1.1
bends when it passes through two other than straight on (normal to the surface), the light ray changes
substances in which its speed differs. Refraction through a Water direction when it meets the boundary. As in the case of reflection, the
Droplet The flower looks small angles of the incoming and refracted rays are measured with respect to
This “breaks” or bends the path that the when viewed through the water the normal. For studying refraction, the normal line is extended into the
wave would otherwise take. droplet. The light from the flower is refracting medium, as shown in Figure 1.2. The angle between the re-
bent because of the shape of the water fracted ray and the normal is called the angle of refraction, θr, and the
droplet and the change in material as angle of incidence is designated as θi.
the light passes through the water.
 Teach Refraction occurs when light’s velocity changes.
Glass, water, ice, diamonds, and quartz are all examples of transparent
media through which light can pass. The speed of light in each of these
Demonstration materials is different. The speed of light in water, for instance, is less than
the speed of light in air. And the speed of light in glass is less than the
speed of light in water.
Refraction from Air to Water
When light moves from a material in which its speed is higher to a
Purpose Demonstrate the phenom- material in which its speed is lower, such as from air to glass, the ray is
enon of refraction, and explore how the bent toward the normal, as shown in Figure 1.2(a). If the ray moves from
angle of incidence affects the angle of
refraction. FIGURE 1.2

Materials laser, dusty chalkboard Refraction When light moves from one
medium to another, part of it is reflected
erasers, aquarium filled with water to and part is refracted. (a) When the light
which a few drops of whole milk have ray moves from air into glass, the refracted
been added portion is bent toward the normal, (b)

(cl) ©Christopher Burki/Getty Images

whereas the path of the light ray moving
Air Glass
Caution Lasers can damage the eyes. from glass into air is bent away from the Glass Air
normal. θi is the angle of incidence and θr
Avoid directing the laser beam toward
is the angle of refraction.
the students.
Procedure Adjust the position of the (a) Normal (b) Normal
laser so that it shines into the water at
an angle of about 30° from the normal.
Gently tap the erasers together above
Differentiated
482 Chapter 14
Instruction HRW • Holt Physics
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the water so that students can see the Inclusion walking on the pavement PH99PE-C15-001-005-A
side, students are to
path of the beam in air. Have students go at a standard pace. On the mud side, they
Reiterate that refraction is caused by the
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observe the light ray bending as it enters must slow down. Now divide the students into
bending of waves as they enter a new medium.
the water. Now, move the laser so that two groups, and have the students in one group
To help kinesthetic and visual learners under-
the beam strikes the water at various walk in a straight line one behind the other.
stand what causes light to refract, have the
angles. Have students observe that the Instruct students to walk from the pavement
students physically act out the commonly used
path of the light ray in water depends toward the mud. As they walk toward the tape,
analogy of a marching band moving through
on the angle at which the light strikes they walk at a standard pace. When the first
two different media (e.g., pavement versus mud).
the surface of the water. student crosses the tape, he or she must slow
Divide the classroom into two halves with a
down. This will cause the whole group to pivot
piece of tape; one side represents pavement
slightly toward the normal. Repeat this process
and the other mud. Explain that when they are
so all students may observe.

482 Chapter 14
 a material in which its speed is lower to one in which its speed is higher,
as in Figure 1.2(b), the ray is bent away from the normal. If the incident ray
of light is parallel to the normal, then no refraction (bending) occurs in TEACH FROM VISUALS
either case.
Note that the path of a light ray that crosses a boundary between two FIGURE 1.2 Point out that a portion of
different media is reversible. If the ray in Figure 1.2(a) originated inside the the incident light is reflected. Make sure
glass block, it would follow the same path as shown in the figure, but the students realize that all angles are
reflected ray would be inside the block.
measured relative to the normal. Remind
students that the normal is an imaginary
Refraction can be explained in terms of the wave model of light.
line drawn perpendicular to the surface.
You have learned how to use wave fronts and light rays to approximate
light waves. This analogy can be extended to light passing from one Ask In Figure 1.2, what is the angle
medium into another. In Figure 1.3, the wave fronts are shown in red and
between the normal line and the
are assumed to be spherical. The combined wave front (dotted line
connecting the individual wave fronts) is a superposition of all the boundary between air and water?
spherical wave fronts. The direction of propagation of the wave is perpen- Answer: 90°
dicular to the wave front and is what we call the light ray.
Consider wave fronts of a plane wave of light traveling at an angle to
the surface of a block of glass, as shown in Figure 1.3. As the light enters
Did YOU Know?
the glass, the wave fronts slow down, but the wave fronts that have not yet
reached the surface of the glass continue traveling at the speed of light in
The speed of light in a vacuum, c, is an
important constant used by physicists.
Misconception Alert!
air. During this time, the slower wave fronts travel a smaller distance than It has been measured to be about Students may think that the frequency
3.00 × 108 m/s. Inside of other
do the wave fronts in the air, so the entire plane wave changes directions. of light changes as light enters a
mediums, such as air, glass, or water,
Note the difference in wavelength (the space between the wave fronts) the speed of light is different and is different medium. Point out that the
between the plane wave in air and the plane wave in the glass. Because less than c.
the wave fronts inside the glass are traveling more slowly, in the same
frequency cannot change. If the
time interval they move through a shorter distance than the wave fronts refracted frequency were less than the
that are still traveling in air. Thus, the wavelength of the light in the glass, incident frequency, wave crests would
λglass, is shorter than the wavelength of the incoming light, λair. The
frequency of the light does not change when the light passes from one
have to “pile up” somewhere. If the
medium to another. refracted frequency were greater than
the incident frequency, wave crests
would have to “pop up” from nowhere.

FIGURE 1.3

Refraction and the Wave Model

of Light A plane wave traveling in air (a)

(a) has a wavelength of λair and velocity

of νair . Each wave front turns as it strikes air
air
the glass. Because the speed of the wave
fronts in the glass (b), νglass, is slower, the
wavelength of the light becomes shorter,
and the wave fronts change direction.
Air
Glass
glass glass
(b)

Refraction 483

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Refraction 483
 The Law of Refraction

 Teach continued
index of refraction the ratio of the An important property of transparent substances is the index of refraction.
speed of light in a vacuum to the speed The index of refraction for a substance is the ratio of the speed of light in a
of light in a given transparent medium
vacuum to the speed of light in that substance.

Demonstration Index of Refraction

c
n=_
v
Refraction in Various Materials speed of light in vacuum
index of refraction = ___
speed of light in medium
Purpose Demonstrate that different
materials have different refractive From this definition, we see that the index of refraction is a dimen-
indices. sionless number that is always greater than 1 because light always travels
slower in a substance than in a vacuum. Figure 1.4 lists the indices of
Materials laser, dusty chalkboard refraction for different substances. Note that the larger the index of
Did YOU Know?
erasers, wide rectangular block of plastic refraction is, the slower light travels in that substance and the more a light
The index of refraction of any medium
(acrylic polymer), rectangular block of can also be expressed as the ratio of
ray will bend when it passes from a vacuum into that material.
glass or other material, aquarium filled the wavelength of light in a vacuum, Imagine, as an example, light passing between air and water. When
λ0, to the wavelength of light in that light begins in the air (high speed of light and low index of refraction) and
with water to which a few drops of milk medium, λn, as shown in the following travels into the water (lower speed of light and higher index of refraction),
have been added relation. λ the light rays are bent toward the normal. Conversely, when light passes
n = _0 from the water to the air, the light rays are bent away from the normal.
Caution Lasers can damage the eyes. λn
Note that the value for the index of refraction of air is nearly that
Avoid directing the laser beam toward of a vacuum. For simplicity, use the value n = 1.00 for air when
the students. solving problems.
Procedure Point the laser so that it
shines into the side of the plastic at an FIGURE 1.4

angle of about 30° from the normal INDICES OF REFRACTION FOR VARIOUS SUBSTANCES*
(choose a point of incidence such that Solids at 20°C n Liquids at 20°C n
the light inside the plastic will exit the
Cubic zirconia 2.20 Benzene 1.501
opposite parallel side of the block).
Diamond 2.419 Carbon disulfide 1.628
Gently tap the erasers together to make
a dust cloud so that the incoming laser Fluorite 1.434 Carbon tetrachloride 1.461
beam is visible. Have students observe Fused quartz 1.458 Ethyl alcohol 1.361
and record the bending of the light rays
Glass, crown 1.52 Glycerine 1.473
as they enter and exit the material. Use
Glass, flint 1.66 Water 1.333
chalk dust to see where the refracted
beam goes. Ice (at 0°C) 1.309 Gases at 0°C, 1 atm n

Repeat this demonstration with the Polystyrene 1.49 Air 1.000 293
glass or other materials. Point out that Sodium chloride 1.544 Carbon dioxide 1.000 450
the angle of incidence is the same in Zircon 1.923
every experiment. Ask students to
*measured with light of vacuum wavelength = 589 nm
compare the angles of refraction in the
different materials. Ask in which ma­terial Differentiated
484 Chapter 14
Instruction
the speed of light is lowest. the most
refractive one Place the blocks inside the Below Level stances only.
water and repeat. Have students observe
To aid below-level students, review the
Untitled-289 484 5/20/2011 6:46:30 AM

that the bending is less dramatic.

definition of transparent substance.
Transparent substances are capable of transmit-
ting light so that the objects or images can be
seen as if there were no intervening material.
Transparent substances are not to be confused
with translucent substances (those that transmit
light but cause sufficient diffusion to prevent
perception of distinct images). The index of
refraction is a property of transparent sub-

484 Chapter 14
 FIGURE 1.5

Image Position for Objects in

Different Media (a) To the cat Normal Normal Demonstration
on the pier, the fish looks closer to the
surface than it really is. (b) To the fish, Underwater Appearance
the cat seems to be farther from the
surface than it actually is. Purpose View the change in apparent
Air Air position due to refraction.
Water Water
Materials (for each student pair) beaker
q wrapped with opaque paper, penny,
container of water
Procedure Have one student place the
(a) (b)
penny in the beaker against the far side
of the beaker. Have the other student
position his or her eyes so that the
Objects appear to be in different positions due to refraction.
penny can just barely be seen over the
When looking at a fish underwater, a cat sitting on a pier perceives the
fish to be closer to the water’s surface than it actually is, as shown in rim of the beaker.
Figure 1.5(a). Conversely, the fish perceives the cat on the pier to be farther Have the first student slowly pour
from the water’s surface than it actually is, as shown in Figure 1.5(b).
water into the beaker. Have the second
Because of the reversibility of refraction, both the fish and the cat see
along the same path, as shown by the solid lines in both figures. However, student note that the penny will appear
the light ray that reaches the fish forms a smaller angle with respect to the to rise with the rising water.
normal than does the light ray from the cat to the water’s surface. The
reason is that light is bent toward the normal when it travels from a
medium with a lower index of refraction (the air) to one with a higher
index of refraction (the water). Extending this ray along a straight line
shows the cat’s image to be above the cat’s actual position.
Answers
On the other hand, the light ray that reaches the cat from the water’s Conceptual Challenge
surface forms a larger angle with respect to the normal instead of a 1. It would have to be the index of
smaller one. This is because the light from the fish travels from a medium
refraction of air. If his index of
with a higher index of refraction to one with a lower index of refraction.
refraction were any larger, the images
behind him would appear distorted,
Conceptual Challenge giving away his position.
2. No, he would not, because light rays
The Invisible Man H. G. Wells Fishing When
wrote a famous novel about a trying to catch a would not be bent by his cornea or
man who made himself invisible by fish, should a pelican lens. Thus, no image would be
changing his index of refraction. dive into the water horizontally in
formed on his retina.
(br) ©George Lepp/Getty Images

What would his index of refraction front of or behind the image of

have to be to accomplish this? the fish it sees? 3. in front of the image, because the
Visibility for the Invisible light from the fish bends away from
Man Would the invisible man be
able to see anything?
the normal as it enters the air

Problem Solving Refraction 485

Take It Further
ntitled-289 485
Assume that the invisible man in H.G. Wells’s 5/20/2011 6:46:31 AM

novel lived underwater. In order to be invisible,

would his index of refraction need to be
higher or lower? Higher. The index for air is
1.00; it is 1.33 for water.

Refraction 485
 Note that the fish’s image is closer to the water’s surface than the fish
actually is. An underwater object seen from the air above appears larger

 Teach continued than its actual size because the image, which is the same size as the
object, is closer to the observer.

Teaching Tip FIGURE 1.6 Wavelength affects the index of refraction.

Point out that the spectrum of visible Differences in Refraction
Note that the indices of refraction listed in Figure 1.4 are only valid for light
that has a wavelength of 589 nm in a vacuum. The reason is that the
light is between 400 nm (violet) and According to Wavelength
amount that light bends when entering a different medium depends on
Different wavelengths of light refract
700 nm (red). Light with 589 nm wave- the wavelength of the light as well as the speed, as shown in Figure 1.6.
different amounts. For example,
length is yellow. blue refracts more than red. This Each color of light has a different wavelength, so each color of the spec-
difference leads to the separation of trum is refracted by a different amount. This explains why a spectrum is
white light into different colors. produced when white light passes through a prism.

Classroom Practice White

light Snell’s law determines the angle of refraction.
Normal
Snell’s Law The index of refraction of a material can be used to figure out how much a
Find the angle of refraction of a light ray ray of light will be refracted as it passes from one medium to another. As
mentioned, the greater the index of refraction, the more refraction occurs.
entering diamond from the following But how can the angle of refraction be found?
materials at an angle of 30.00°. (Hint: Use Red In 1621, Willebrord Snell experimented with light passing through
Blue
data from Figure 1.4.) different media. He developed a relationship called Snell’s law, which
can be used to find the angle of refraction for light traveling between any
a. water two media.
b. cubic zirconia
Answers: PHY_CNLAESE586694_810A.ai
Snell’s Law
a. 15.99° Sam Valentino ni sin θi = nr sin θr
2.8.11
b. 27.0° 2nd pass index of refraction of first medium × sine of the angle of incidence =
index of refraction of second medium × sine of the angle of refraction
A light ray (589 nm) traveling through air
strikes an unknown substance at 60.00°
and forms an angle of 41.42° with the PREMIUM CONTENT

normal inside. What material is it? Snell’s Law Interactive Demo

HMDScience.com
Answer:
Sample Problem A A light ray of wavelength 589 nm
ice (n = 1.309) (produced by a sodium lamp) traveling through air strikes a
smooth, flat slab of crown glass at an angle of 30.0° to the normal.
Find the angle of refraction, θr .

The Language of ANALYZE Given: θi = 30.0°

Physics ni = 1.00
sin denotes the inverse function of
-1
nr = 1.52
sine, not ​ __
1
sin ​. Unknown: θr = ?
Just as sin 30° = 0.5,
Continued
sin-1 (0.5) = 30°.
Problem Solving
486 Chapter 14

Deconstructing Problems If the students were unable to determine

As students begin working with angle of
Untitled-289 486 the index of refraction from the chart, they’d 5/20/2011 6:46:32 AM

refraction problems, they should carefully need to know the speed of light in the
analyze the question to determine the givens. medium in order to generate this figure and
They should look for the two media with which solve the problem. Once students determine
they’ll be working to determine whether the refraction indices, they should look for the
index of refraction is provided or whether they’ll angle of incidence by looking for phrases such
need to look it up or calculate it. In this case, the as “at an angle of ____ to the normal.” Once
two media mentioned are air and crown glass. they have determined the givens, they can use
Both media are listed in the chart in Figure 1.4. Snell’s Law to solve for the unknown.

486 Chapter 14
 Snell’s Law (continued)

SOLVE Use the equation for Snell’s law. PROBLEM guide A

ni sin θi = nr sin θr Use this guide to assign problems.
 ni   1.00 
θr = sin-1  _ (sin θi) � = sin-1  _ (sin 30.0°)� SE = Student Edition Textbook
 nr   1.52 
PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
θr = 19.2°
PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
Solving for:
1. Find the angle of refraction for a ray of light that enters a bucket of water from air
θr SE Sample, 1–2;
at an angle of 25.0° to the normal. (Hint: Use Figure 1.4.)
Ch. Rvw. 10–14, 42a, 49
2. For an incoming ray of light of vacuum wavelength 589 nm, fill in the unknown
values in the following table. (Hint: Use Figure 1.4.) PW 5
from (medium) to (medium) θi θr PB 7–10
a. flint glass crown glass 25.0° ?
θi SE Ch. Rvw. 40, 42a
b. air ? 14.5° 9.80°
PW 3
c. air diamond 31.6° ?
3. A ray of light of vacuum wavelength 550 nm traveling in air enters a slab of
PB Sample, 1–3
transparent material. The incoming ray makes an angle of 40.0° with the normal, n SE 3; Ch. Rvw. 39, 41
and the refracted ray makes an angle of 26.0° with the normal. Find the index of
refraction of the transparent material. (Assume that the index of refraction of air PW Sample, 1–2, 4
for light of wavelength 550 nm is 1.00.) PB 4–6
*Challenging Problem

SECTION 1 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas Answers
1. Sunlight passes into a raindrop at an angle of 22.5° from the normal at Practice A
one point on the droplet. What is the angle of refraction?
1. 18.5°
2. For each of the following cases, will light rays be bent toward or away
from the normal? 2. a. 27.5°
a. ni > nr, where θi = 20°
b. glycerine (n = 1.47)
b. ni < nr, where θi = 20°
c. from air to glass with an angle of incidence of 30°
c. 12.5°
d. from glass to air with an angle of incidence of 30° 3. 1.47
3. Find the angle of refraction of a ray of light that enters a diamond from air
at an angle of 15.0° to the normal. (Hint: Use Figure 1.4.)

Critical Thinking Assess and Reteach 

4. In which of the following situations will light from a laser be refracted?
a. traveling from air into a diamond at an angle of 30° to the normal Assess Use the Formative Assessment
b. traveling from water into ice along the normal on this page to evaluate student
c. upon striking a metal surface mastery of the section.
d. traveling from air into a glass of iced tea at an angle of 25° to the normal
Reteach For students who need
Answers to Section Assessment Refraction 487 additional instruction, download the
Section Study Guide.
1. 16.7° Response to Intervention To reassess
ntitled-289 487 2. a. away 5/20/2011 6:46:32 AM students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz,
b. toward available to print or to take directly
c. toward online at HMDScience.com.
d. away
3. 6.14°
4. a, d

Refraction 487