8 Light, Shadows and Reflections

1. Sources of Light
• Light helps us see objects. Without light, it is impossible to see anything.
• Some objects produce their own light. These objects are called luminous objects. Examples of
luminous objects include the Sun, a candle, a torch, and an electric bulb.
• Objects that do not emit their own light are called non-luminous objects. Examples include a table, a
book, trees, and the Moon.
• We can see non-luminous objects only when light from a luminous object falls on them and is
reflected into our eyes.

2. Transparent, Opaque, and Translucent Objects

Objects can be classified based on the amount of light they allow to pass through them.
• Transparent objects allow all light to pass through them, making objects behind them clearly
visible. Examples include glass, clean water, and air.
• Opaque objects do not allow any light to pass through them, meaning we cannot see objects behind
them. Examples include wood, metal, and stone.
• Translucent objects allow some light to pass through them, but objects behind them appear blurry.
Examples include frosted glass, thin cloth, and tracing paper.

3. Shadows
(i) What is a Shadow?
A shadow is a dark area formed when an opaque object blocks the path of light. Shadows always appear on
the opposite side of the light source.
(ii) Conditions Required to Form a Shadow
A shadow can only be formed if the following three conditions are met:
1. There must be a light source (e.g., Sun, torch, or bulb).
2. There must be an opaque object to block the light.
3. A screen or surface (like a wall or ground) should be present to capture the shadow.
(iii) Characteristics of Shadows
• Shadows are always black regardless of the object's color.
• The shape of the shadow depends on the shape and position of the object.
• Shadows do not display details like the color or texture of an object.
• The size of a shadow depends on the distance between the object and the light source:
o If the object is closer to the light source, the shadow is larger.
o If the object is farther from the light source, the shadow is smaller.
(iv) Observing Shadows
• If we place a chair in sunlight, we will notice its shadow on the ground.
• Changing the angle or position of the chair will change the shape of the shadow.
• If we use objects of different colors (such as a red and a yellow flower), their shadows will still
appear black.

4. Pinhole Camera
(i) What is a Pinhole Camera?
A pinhole camera is a simple device that forms an inverted image of an object. Unlike regular cameras, a
pinhole camera does not use a lens. It works because light travels in a straight line.
(ii) How to Make a Pinhole Camera?
A pinhole camera can be made using:
1. Two cardboard boxes (one smaller than the other).
2. A tracing paper (to act as a screen).
3. A small pinhole on one side of the larger box.
4. The smaller box should be placed inside the larger box with the tracing paper facing the pinhole.
(iii) How Does a Pinhole Camera Work?
• Light from an object passes through the pinhole and forms an inverted image on the tracing paper.
• The image appears smaller than the actual object and is upside down.
(iv) Observing the Sun Safely
• A pinhole camera can be used to safely observe a solar eclipse.
• Looking directly at the Sun can be harmful to the eyes.
(v) Natural Pinhole Camera
• Sunlight passing through small gaps between tree leaves creates circular patterns of light on the
ground.
• These are examples of pinhole projections in nature.

5. Light Travels in a Straight Line

• Light always travels in a straight path unless something blocks it or changes its direction.
• This can be demonstrated using a straight pipe:
o If we look through a straight pipe at a candle flame, we can see it clearly.
o If we bend the pipe, the flame is no longer visible.
o This experiment proves that light cannot pass through a curved path.
o
6. Reflection of Light
(i) What is Reflection?
• Reflection occurs when light bounces off a smooth surface such as a mirror.
• Mirrors reflect light, allowing us to see our own image.
• We also see reflections in water, polished surfaces, and shiny objects.
(ii) Observing Reflection
• If we shine a torch on a mirror, the light will bounce off in another direction.
• This shows that mirrors change the direction of light.
(iii) Periscope – A Device That Uses Reflection
• A periscope is a device that allows us to see objects around corners or over walls.
• It contains two mirrors placed at an angle, which reflect light from one end to the other.
• Periscopes are used in submarines, tanks, and hidden observation posts.
 CH 11 . Air Around Us
Air is an essential component of life. Though we cannot see it, we can feel its presence in various ways, such
as when the wind blows, leaves rustle, or a kite flies in the sky. This chapter explores the composition of air,
its presence everywhere, and its role in supporting life.

1. Air is Present Everywhere

• Air is all around us, but it is invisible because it has no color and is transparent.
• We can feel air when it moves, such as in wind or storms.
• Air occupies space, as shown by the following activity:
Activity: Proving Air is Present Everywhere
1. Take an empty bottle and turn it upside down.
2. Dip the bottle’s open mouth into a bucket of water.
3. Water does not enter the bottle because the bottle is already filled with air.
4. When the bottle is tilted, bubbles come out, showing that air was present inside.
This activity proves that air fills all available space and is present everywhere.

2. Composition of Air
Until the 18th century, people thought air was a single substance. However, we now know that air is a
mixture of several gases.
Main Components of Air:

Component Percentage in Air Importance

Nitrogen 78% Does not support burning, helps plants grow.

Oxygen 21% Essential for respiration and burning.

Carbon Dioxide 0.03% Used by plants for photosynthesis.

Water Vapor Varies Forms clouds and rain, maintains humidity.

Dust and Smoke Varies Pollutes air and affects health.

3. Oxygen: The Life-Supporting Gas

• Oxygen is essential for respiration in humans, animals, and plants.
• It also supports burning.
Activity: Proving Air Contains Oxygen
1. Light two candles of equal size.
2. Cover one candle with a glass tumbler and leave the other one open.
3. The covered candle goes out after some time because it uses up the oxygen inside the tumbler.
 4. The open candle continues burning as it gets a continuous supply of oxygen.
This activity proves that oxygen is necessary for burning.

4. Nitrogen: The Major Component of Air

• Nitrogen makes up 78% of air.
• It does not support burning.
• It helps plants grow by forming compounds like fertilizers.

5. Carbon Dioxide: A Small but Important Component

• Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is present in a small amount (0.03%) in the air.
• It is produced when:
o Animals breathe out during respiration.
o Fuels like wood and coal burn.
• It is used by plants in photosynthesis to make food.

6. Water Vapor in Air

• Water vapor is present in the air and varies from place to place.
• When air touches a cold surface, water vapor condenses into tiny water droplets.
• This is seen as dew or fog in the early morning.
• Water vapor plays an important role in the water cycle, as it helps form clouds and brings rain.

7. Dust and Smoke in Air

• Smoke is produced by burning fuels like wood, coal, or petrol.
• It contains harmful gases and fine dust particles, which cause air pollution.
• Factories have tall chimneys to release smoke higher in the air, away from people.
• Dust particles are always present in the air, varying by location and season.
Activity: Observing Dust in Air
1. Close all doors and windows of a dark room.
2. Let a small beam of sunlight enter through a slit.
3. Tiny shining dust particles can be seen moving in the air.
This activity proves that air contains dust particles.

3. Presence of Air in Water and Soil

(i) Air in Water
 • Aquatic animals need oxygen to survive.
• Water contains dissolved oxygen that fish and other aquatic creatures use for respiration.
Activity: Proving Air is Dissolved in Water
1. Take some water in a glass and heat it slowly.
2. Small bubbles appear before boiling.
3. These bubbles are formed by dissolved air escaping.
This proves that water contains dissolved air.

(ii) Air in Soil

• Soil contains air in small spaces between its particles.
• Animals like earthworms and insects use this air to breathe.
Activity: Proving Soil Contains Air
1. Take a lump of dry soil in a beaker.
2. Pour water slowly into the soil.
3. Bubbles appear as air escapes.
This proves that air is present in soil.
Note: During heavy rains, water fills all the air spaces in the soil, forcing earthworms to come out.

4. How Oxygen is Replaced in the Air

• Oxygen is continuously used up by animals, humans, and burning fuels.
• However, plants release oxygen during photosynthesis.
• This maintains the oxygen-carbon dioxide balance in the atmosphere.
• Plants and animals depend on each other for exchanging gases.

5. Importance of Air in Daily Life

• Air is essential for respiration in humans, animals, and plants.
• Air helps in burning fuels for cooking, transport, and industries.
• Air enables movement of objects like sailing boats, kites, gliders, and parachutes.
• Birds, bats, and insects fly using air.
• Windmills use air to generate electricity and pump water.
• Air helps in seed dispersal and pollination in plants.

End-of-Chapter Questions and Answers

Q1: What is the composition of air?
Answer: Air is a mixture of gases, including 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, water
vapor, and dust particles.
Q2: Which gas in the atmosphere is essential for respiration?
Answer: Oxygen is essential for respiration.
Q3: How will you prove that air supports burning?
Answer: If a burning candle is covered with a glass tumbler, it goes out after some time. This shows that
air contains oxygen, which is necessary for burning.
Q4: How will you show that air is dissolved in water?
Answer: When water is heated, small air bubbles appear before it starts boiling. These bubbles come from
the dissolved air escaping, proving that air is present in water.
Q5: Why does a lump of cotton wool shrink in water?
Answer: When cotton wool absorbs water, air present inside it escapes, making it shrink.
Q6: How do plants and animals exchange gases in the atmosphere?
Answer:
• Animals breathe in oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
• Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and release oxygen.
• This cycle maintains the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air.