odult - | ie ry ptogrenky & nile oneCBIT-Kolar 034Form#01—Rev.No.00 + Page:3/4 3__| Data link layer protocols 2 | waite 274/18 40 | HDLC 1) 288 41] Point to Point protocol: Framing T 304718 42_| Transition phase 7 Module-5 Other wireless Networks: 43 | WIMAX 1 2SAS 44] Cellular Telephony z IS/1B & TISHA8 45 _| Satellite networks. 2 B/S 46 | Network layer Protocols : Internet 1 SNE Protocol. 47_| ICMPv4. 1 LSB 48__| Mobile IP. 1 12/5/18 49 | Next generation IP: IPv6 Addressing. 1 14/5/18 50__| The IPv6 Protocol. 1 15/58 51_| The ICMPv6 Protocol 1 15/5/18 32_| Transition from IPv4 to [Pv6. H 165/18 INTERNAL TEST — II (16/5/2018 to 21/5/2018) ea Revision 2 2258 cy Revision T DSB Prepared 7 Reviewed) ‘Approved b sored Te than y pproved by Dateasign gut Dateien Dateasign alt} leL Chapter ~\ Tnrtroduckion cyber Attacks | A cyber AEROCK ih any Euype of oflensive maneuver em | by individuals ov whole organizations that= barges aul iofprmation system rofraskyuct une, computer eeootts ‘ | and personal computer devices by Vaytous wean ef malicious ack usually exigunating from @n anony mout Source Rat esther Skeals , aAlkew or destroyh & specifred bargek Py hacking Ineo a sugceptrble Sytem t ore cee nee deli berake -enplotkation of computer e(m pechnology dependent enterp tines and Neeoorks ; Malictoul Code FO alkeq computes code , hogic or dake , a Cybe Vado th alko Known Moin Moki ves of Launching cagber — H Thee of sensi hive informabion Le ke oS 7 em organizations Tnlprmation on new hugely advankeqeo bevy inzallation OF PyectrAe Nation, ee ox a Computer Nio Afack Cone) pttacks _—_— epove Fe Communicate Sen PvE, talormation | produckh betng designed oF NENEME Sources) can be tow companys compe Kitos ¢ He Lkewihe , dekatls of wl welt bary plant con be ob ap Tdenkiey ThefE > Lemioge ol, personal inforena tron Guth a credit Numbers , paswords and even personal spending hab?e: commen & Such tnformation in ad ventinedt en a ms websthes fe Mey be puychated for & Sma “ee. ee. ammene Value FoEnkevrupeion or di drupkion 4 Geavice TA Launched ante | an organi gations genver So Hey ave gendered Unavailable In vecenk termes, there have been unconfirmed reporks of Sach Launched et pustnem rivals ot e-commerce, % Piswupkion of “sewice abe acks being WEBSIEEE + ¥ rlkegal acces bo ox ure of Rerourcer The qoat heve Th Eo obbatn free acces or Service Eo patd geavi ces. ra mples of tara tockede produces such oath Maga Zine Jame on someone ethers ecctount , } free use of Compuli ng ROLEX ON & SuperComputey: yee ACCER to online digika| oy journal avticter | jrec ati. yee Fale Efme on someone eee account , common ASE Abfack, ave those tRat attempi #o webreeve. | \ personal information from an tadividual . Two of the bert Koon i ateotks in thth category AVS i) patshing Attack mi phar ming attack , one Set Hphiphing Atak —— | Aiatkey deerda bo creake bislher own web stke, whic! looks very falentr cal ko Yeal websike . , 4 F fank eotth which HE WCRI har an Account i i he ke st on i 2 e \e estte he the Look ag feel of the auttenttc, | ca he WTI ch Hhen Saduced bo Teveol senathive | tnjarmation such ay hialhey Bank loyinname & pauttsara)| os PIN WHICH ore then Pothed on ko the fate woebcites . |al A Pharma 4 Another Attack, Known earlier ar DNS Spoofing in now calley j cis Race | > people can identity Webster with human. readabte Names Sueh as Louw grails corn & Computers can tm Heat them of Tp addvemy (tao lo-et. 67) cankinne Foy this, & Special gerver computey catled One Senvey ., . . be aadduun MorNaing a Hopping blw dematn names & the Le Add vemey prs Spooting, WORE ar follows. | + Ss Uppone Hot there t\ @ Merchaot (Bob) whore site's, domary Name th Wwuw-bobicom & Ep addren ip (00 .{o.lo. 9g Fis The DNS entry for Bob onal the DNS Serve ih maintained ow fottows Www bob-Com — Loo lo» (0. 20 | the Mfackey wanager to hack & veplace He 3 Kadch recy | of Bob with her own say loo @o- Bodo enthe pus Ceevey — afker adhere DNS Sesve, Maintained te Dus entyy fev Bob FA www bob: Com loo. A980. a0 Ye personal tA mation Mey also be leated out from ! Credte cards, gmat cords and ATM Coss throwg ho Variety oh Skimming Attaces . | wy beakege of information May alho take place Arough eaverdorting, er Snooping on fee Lenk blu & communieabiny pave - ' Tnbrud in Toko @ Compueer Sykes 4 throwgh a Attecey, — ohich are special Cave ct , j pour ord WER eMony of the HACK, Mentioned So her ane forms 4 Tdentiby tel. utlimate. qoal 4 Atfacter CA to tmp hora. / han| her Vickim. & bftacter can then perform wnacctRori ded | Log int, {nities te bankeng Eramachont etc | tltau i H Deatal of service Ces) rel | tempt LS sos | le Macey mate an Attempt ko prerent Legitimate wey | | i 7 _ eligfole | | from aceemstng gome Service, WHICH eg ave eligi hor. | i for tatance, a0 unauthorized wey might send 90 ny | loge ‘resjueat-h to a Server using random wWents in Gps Successton + gn Flood He ntl & deny other Legteimake cso as $0 “ te wre the — Network focilikie, | | iy Malware | ee Feo progran Frat AacK computer SHECIM Lo cause some. damage OF Eo create confusion . ms & VIVA aXe malware that ‘replicate tRemselvex woot . | I | | \ | | | . i fo a Vitus cpreade fro H mfecka a file, m [Lg vives Eypically f | | one, ite to another. a usual a Stend-alone Progvam hak Foheete ok aa Zo a WOT Cpreads from Leomputer fo anoles compute t+ fa a ER palware that: masqguevader a wkilh A Evian a | oe hon they wwhidtous goals buch the Nodihi cation 4 | [rte data thebe eC. + gpymare initalled on a Hacking | ean be UXed ko monitoy wiey @CkivViEY & a8 a keg loqqey Ho Vecover Va lua le. information such a panwords brom user Key strover| Nulnevabilibites, ; — — ~ 2 | ~ | i & Vulnerability : cA & Weak ny ees | | | a tn Herdwave oy sofbeoarte writin an % Procedure | protocs| pokential Eo caune damage Of ganiration bat har Hh ) | : © | the uw der standin z Secust by yulneyabilittes, 4 the tee. wo helping Us Understenal s AtfealkK, be i a dehending agatact: Hem. ie. ee a Ape pt . a There ave 1 Pmporka nk yeelne rail Hey z abil TUM) : domain 4 secu of Be 2) Human vulnerabsLibies ria ears — These are yulnera bi Bes Induce ot by human behaviowy Fer action - Eti-ythe wert clecks On | qecetved from tesicionable source. BY So deing the Wier cay be arecked FO a Site controlled by the attacker o% tn a i prisheng stack . a Atak tr an emarl menage 9) strniloaly clicking on an emarl attachmenE may openue| a document eet @ Macro to be evedukesl. the Macro | nag be dorgoed FO tobect: they [rlex on the SyAbem & spered ee eoectedt ematl Aad vekes hax vee teal from yee VaCRE OA inbow . ko offer email | tn both the carer the hamon yulnerate!lky CONIA ef | clickrng on a Lenk ov attachment ff an emarl from a poser bly unknown Counce | Sap) prokoce | yulnerabiCes Yep, Lp, Networking prokocels includ Local Area wfous prokocels used $9 frat hove been used Tn i cuposrbed Atfacky , i — h wember o ARP, TEMP UDP, DNS Vat Nebworks — have hearers un anticpabed ways Fe craft EL — Pheumeng Attacks & Njacking attacks.> There are number of vulnerabilities tn fhe desran oh cecwuky prokocols that lead 0 Yeplay of Nan-fyo. | puddle Abtaticn nas > Yhoe Mbacks, tn bwin Lead to fdenkity thet, compronire ceevet Keys eC: —s Vulnerabilire fn Nehwork prokecolA are offen elated to aopecth of thery teat Eosgh Trey may alo be the ele of, poor tmp lementa H on - ceay Software val neva br ex _5 TRI fomtly valnevabilibicr FA caured by Sloppily written Applicakion goltwane . Syprem ov i> Tn many case, the crur of the problem seems bo he Re code Rak fh atl eo | of wae Tp J © A prograrn declare, an atYey of (60 Element,. TE populaeer the awe cotth onpek from the wen. However the proqvay dognok checee the Length of the exgea enpert chr 7 tre Lakter ch qvecter then, 490 byEea | the buffer sofll pveatlow . Theve axe huodreds ay Mnekoncer here thiA vulne vabin] wees go ax buffer overlion NAL been exploited bo Mmiect| fo ewecube Malicious worm Coele ‘ web serves AeCEbA fnpek hrm a Uses browser , Vihe Ture ih empeckeat to Eype @ simple peut stating Contafning hislhey name oy pattwosd , EMikead the Wer enters a part of one Of more Statements th the browne Sent pet ng bonguage, Javea scripe The Swe Sof boare coer noe | | | palorm suffccient validation of usex inpul vecerved by ne! © oR Server attepEA infu {rom @ usen's browsen ox through, | some other tnbtaface, the tnsutficiente validation of ute Yapuk by the Saver TuUIkh fo an CQL Infeckion oH yrulnerabsliky. -| W) configuratton vulnerabili bie, a TSO | | > Thue relates bo Configuration ti ° Applications , piles eke. My setting, on nevolly tm tsllead > Reod-wrt he — ENECU ER perminions on (les mayb: | qenerour & susceptible Eo abure, a lar privilege Level custgned kee @ Proce may be highe mn whak fE Should be Eo coxrgout & EK " hes privilege mod be mithured : during some potnt + P | t ne erecerfion, leateng Fo whot are commont ae a ere caclaton” abiaen, ee pefence Skrabegics and techniques 4) Acco control — Authenkicakion and Authorization | 5 the prs defence Skyabeqy Eo prevent tokrutton, 9K | Rect control - ja we Taig tenplis the eurstence of a erutked third pon fRat Medtakes acces ko & protected Sykem. the wrubed fhied park ES Eeypicalty Implemented i Solkwaxe & may be | | a pave oh the operating system & the Application . | ay ACCOM Control ft EO permit oF deny | _, The his Step y h Thin tnvolyer some Lorm oY Authentication entry tno the system - ge Ruthenkt Cation > nuthenrE cation Mechanic yhe authenticator proces emuxes that the origin an Nemage oF document TA Correctly. rdencsPoed m help establtah Prot of ydentiti Etectroni © one form af puthenticakton fx the humble pasduord user [iret enkeys his| her Logi Name. by prompfing yy hia |hey panword , fre Syhtem Empleciely principal Fo prove his |hey tdentiky . = xe zinthey Fo enet challenges the_ ahbet successful paucthenkication, a Subject is logged tho the SEEM - The Subfeck mey need Ko accer several Resourcer Such ay pis . the author? ation decisions made to verponse Ee subjeo te oy Vvoutiouns VEN ene grained & onl ounces arte Vequerks hax been cuecena}u lly completed made abber authentication ELi- untvest Library . ;= 4 \ ! oq MembeY ob the focutky shaft oy Skudent can Lenker the Ltbvexy by producctng a valid untversity TD Card. | | so herve Tp card fh the Mechantam Loy Authentication xh the Tdcord ta valid & belong to the valid Member | then will be decided ax that Member ax Autforided Perton then we oil qive @ chance for Hak puttori ged percon to accem te youre Chsbraccy book) | | | \ | i | The Maro prtnciple of ACCEK control determrnes “who | Should be able Eo ACen wha’ us —— 'b) Daka prokeckion + The daka tr kramiE oy in Storage heed to be protected * confidential Py fe ! ‘as The principle of confidenkialiky specifies Hak only tre sender | and the tnkended yecipientn Should be able Fo accem the contenkh of a Mehage (Ly the data Shouldrok be veadable by an enkvuder,| * Dako tokegrity \ data wm traute shouldnok be tampoed with or modified] etthe y toadverkenkly ov by walicrous olestgn wi Pout betng detected . — when the contents of a Nn e ave changed albey the Cendey Sendg tk, buk before TE ‘cache, the? tnkended qectpiene , te Say tak fe Tokegytty of He Mewoge 16 lost - . exypkeqy a phic Eechnig) eee, among the bere Known way Eo prokeck both, the ¢ ofidentiali by land Foteqyi ty + data. e The Enerypkion operation iA performest by the Merhage to dinguthe TE Pprioy to Sendtn th, 2 The decrypt on operation tr Perormed on the of ta quiked erage tn order tO FECOVET the original MeMage | cendey on aw o stmilorly fReve aye a Numbey of tnkegrity Check ec high, ffak may be wied= the Mock Secure of there fs the “caypkoqrarhic checkcuny” age _— Wy sender computes the Checksum as @ one-way hunction oh the menage g cecvet- Tk brammrr te Mehage & Checksum. af The Recenes altho compuber the Checksum rh the computed checksum Matcher that vecetved , the Tece ren conclude: HRak eve Hh No ervor fn the weceived Menoge,\¢) Prevenkion and detection | > Accem control and Methage Encryption are preveni-yve, Strategies. |S wutfenkicakton keeph Tokrudeyg ouk , while auttortgatton Ltt what can be dene. by thoke who have been allowed m5. Vv Encryption preventA fntruders from Eaveadropp tong on Memager. vy Crypkoqvaphic checkcum, on the othtshand detecte fraamnp ertng of Methages > Cocke kexking (KH Wed ko detect vulnerabilities Klock bon EerEtng fA employ ect when te cource code, ob @ | Proqyamn Th Nok eanily available = In this core carefully crafted tnputc are bed to a | Fanning Program . The wsponre ay the wunning Proqvem to there, inputn iA carefully observed - > For qreatey ASSuscance eh Secure coftware cohtie bow. tea EEO Should be employed - querbion Th we have fnkrustion prevenki ve Eechniquer mo place ushy do we need etnkyurton detection @E all? gel” Tnkrurton prevention may nok atwoays be practical oy Bhpordable- Al6o where deployed, TE MAY NEE altoay be. Effective for evample , Te magnok always, be EAAY bo Keepout- pos Erafhie since fe th opken aiteccate be dix tingusch | lw Leg thimabe brabfie & akkack Pactete |ooo ee _ a - — + | Ty such cones, We LOOK hor anomatour behaviouy — a: | cadial departure from the norm . con-T Muu montkor in a) nletwork Legs fe operating Sytem Logg ave & geod charting pornk ia) Response, Recover and Eorensica ee covmgy -s once. an Atack has been detected Res ; , ponse mearue Shou ld be switkly Faken. There Fneluotes shutttn down all oF pare of the System. t Ls puing & worm epidemic, the Tolecked Park of the term Should be quavenkined & neceMany Patches appued- 5 Many tnzxuaton Atempes leave binges prtnta (ute luke & extinenal foes at tre creme Ske. > cyber govenssch TK aN Emerging discipline with @ cet oh pools KHat help Eraceback the perpekratorc cn cyber cn we - peltarkions o\, Commonly used Herm of security parlance a) secuntty policy © ck tA the Set Oo spuley & PYACHICeEs that wequlabe how an oF ani zaton Manag es & prokeces TEN competion and commani cation FEROWHCEA from unauthorized whe we mibuse- by Secentiy Mechantin: es device Used Eo emplement Ea cecuntey policy -¢) valnevabrlits : TE fH a Weaknemy oy Flaw eq the archteec . | Tmplementation oy operational Preceatures of a GR a that could be eupleited ko caute loce oy hatte | ad) ACC Control | eS ACCEM Control (A the proce O} Preventtn Unauthorized Acce Oo aw Campaking oY Communication yebunee e) putor?Zathoen, | TE fnvolver qranking & specttre ents or Proce He Permimion Eo ACCeR yerkrickect claka oy Perform a YeAbsic ted | operakion | TIN. £) Rudtetng | TE ta the proce oH collecktn erent velevang! toformna tion, Ta ordey Eo Emmure Compliance cate Security — polictes Lard ouk fev an organization 9) Enkiky authentication, TE is The proce of veribying Rak te entity eae pea eee oa) oe) ie ence fee be be. h) MUACGE Authentication Meoge Autfentication in the proce 4 Very ing +he Source ay origin 4 the MuUrog ¢ ‘) confi denkiali ty TE i the protection of data bro AiR clonure ko an unauthor? gech party OY Procen .| j nkeqyt | }) Toteqe aw Te in the ~ Lied oon ner! trak = daka hk , pered with oy Made Soh not been intent cn a “t TE offexk a quand by a party 9 - ice ett vepudiatton b atk Pe Created oo, a denia| | ent a pov ticular oo — theve are some of ane echanthens olicszer OTF en tee Teal hove & wey sole ED prey fO poorer orgortaations \ cup Adentn ineraEoys handle day Eo omy key fon of & sytem pa mmibevator oo coo Ger ® suptems and Kpplica Fors. Thur job ale eavolve, SEEN wer group REMETON ko verses open resources Sach [res c con begs #9 (presale operattors -Q Securtey. Should be ahbertRoughe - fackored fO ak incepkfon pnok a anMode maktcal Background fer cryptography Module avithmettc [pte tala a Lee do be an tnteqey lee and ¥ be te quotient a from dividing di by n and Lek 1 be a Ave ne ad Yemainder obtetne ~ The velationship blo an, 4 &% is se —>0 where ¥ TA @ non-negative wtnkeqey lea than n dand nave dividend and the divisor , verpeckively we Sey that “d th equal + nodal 9" ‘f tae yemarndey Obtained ftom dividing Ad byw TAT. Thin ih Expraped ax, ¥ = d mod n) — © For a given value 4 nm and T, Mere ale an myers nuraber of C4. 4) pairs. Hee sakithy eyuarkon Ecomple ek n= to and ¥=3 Then 13,83,33 eke. all Saktaly equation we? : eral © with quokienty 1,8.3 eC. En fact: each Element of, the SEE below SAtinfin equation @) {20 HBF, 7 OH, HIE, $F, 3, 13, 83/23 43, ...) cary Numbers 9 the Above Sek ane Sard be be. congruent Modulo 10 & the Sek theeip eA teloned fo AA a congruence clay.loin the betow biqure chowk frat “module telatinchip® a) Modislo nN _velatinchip® | The thbeqere ave lard out along a spiral with n teegers on a Stngle circle. d 4 starting with ©, WE EMcouatey the posthtve Mregen, Zn Sequence ax we Evavere the Cptral cloccesine s while te ~ve Numbers ave encountered ek we | raverse FRE sptval fo He ankt-cloCeesire direction | yoo dfskince Foeegers a & & tak ave Congyuenk Nedulon = to the Some wadtuy 79 the spiral . count hom ate moe tryolvts ont OYE move revolution . | fig:F fact Th & weegea are congruent Module n Fy byl an integral Naresple then 0 Rgebraically ‘f a mod N= ¥ and b mod an zy fey then a= 0*¥y, +¥ and Ba nkQGs tt where 4, and Y ave tnbegqars « levothi by subevetting we yee a b= NCH ~$5) since Yo & Ya ave Unteegers , aand & diffe bey an tatceqral mutetple of, 9. pang weal poyAETA of Module Aritimeric can be proce usin the abore \ece \- (a tb) mod H = (Ca mod ny +( b mod ny) mod 1 a (aby mod h= (La meodn) - (b mod nr) mod y 3. Coxb) mod N = (C& Mod n\ *& Cb mod nj) mod 9 The rook her the 3 proper Ete, th STmilax, WE Prove the propery a hee jet ae NEY, tT) and b= N# Yat Ts go OF b= ACHE KGa $Y HVAEYAETO FT EVR we can add [subkroct any matkipte of 9 fom a Namber wrthow E changing eh, value tmodulon co, whe LAS of properky 3 th, va amed 5 = a. Lax b) mod n= (41% ya) mod yo bred hn. cubskituting for © &© , the RHE of propesty 3 n i UL © HH, FT od nd # CONEY 47g) mod ny) mod = UX, mod ny © Cra mod n)) mod n U] = (i & Ta) mod 9 LAS = RNS _—————F erampte eS ela | for PHS, a= st & b=3y Whe LAS Oh) property | is ' =) (94 +3) mod & => bl med 2 = = RRS of propery Les (La mod n) 4 Cb med ny) mod ny (Lat mod 2) + (34 mod 2)) wed F @* v) mod © ¢ mod 8 ao Re ee eee Oe anaes eed BE there PIORCTERK, % Tn ¢ oko graphy , we often have Eo Peshorm computettia guch O& mmareiply ing a Large Number of berm each Hxm qesele betng a very boxqe Number. ‘ ” EL:- we have bo art et PLY So inkegevs, each abouk (000d, is long - ° (a, # ag 2g —- - - F4gQ) mod tn the worst care, the StBC of 1 Hag will be soo0d "Rie she StBE 4 Ql fag Kaz will be 3000 ATqk " propered 3, etlh us that we could Yedeece meadulo n each tntermediake product before Toutes ple 7 by tre neve berm "Y-" a compu e Re product ap¥ag yeduce 7-€ Compuke b= Ca, % ag) mod 4 | Gompuke the product foe ag yeduce Te Compute ¢a(b¥ sz) mod n doing YAK TOHky ick? A b ong . we are xo XICEEN, the Stae 4 each gavermediake wEulks En particu ter, thn i Yought \ooo AGRA , then Tre Length al the tnbexmealiobe Teutes atker a mutbipcation & a SUR ae ncn more a itort ooo & tooo digits wes pec tavely Gyvea exe Common divisor the geo ob Q Numbers and n denoted & Geocu.n) ty defined as the forget inkeqer that divides both eee such tha He vemarndey tA Zero EXCH geo Cau, +2) 8.3 &G Ae Common divisorg for &u sé ¥e The Larger Inbegey that divider both RS (4 oth qed Coch =r, we seq that b §C are Yelaesve ly prime oy Co- prime . Euctid’s algortthen ———— ahe Nethod ending. the Ged of Heo Wumbers Wor named ofeer athemakcian euctid from Ale rtand via ond TAiK ts olen catled "Euclid *y al ovithm Fe bind "to compute GCp 4 & Numbers watey ucts | skerl : compute the vematndey by dividing bay c | we bho grepa. Assign ¢ bo b using the Statement fy coe | a a ematnder Y fo Cc Ustny the Statement) c= | | yepeak long ag Cc fA NOE Blrg sfc TA Bern TRen vebutn b TA Gen. Eebample ee gind the Geo C Let, UR) wrtng Euclids SL pe tet called see ee wane t(t ta youd “4 beaur ce AI see vax ud ya) a2 a2 vo Wy 14 be ha ec wy seeRO yg 14 tw) 4403, ue Yet > bel ce ! seer yh HtuC2 i os Neo t oO c2O 1 GM .geo (ter, Way KF <> tr euclid's algorithen b= C¥4tT be Cc ave fobeqers Y & vemarndey, Ye quokienk b cq qo compuke ged CEL, tray we cotll Oke HK Method seep loo b= oR At aay vers Vee aE AN Me ut ee | po ck Yt nay ata 8 nas VERA Ty z and pec EV wy ea, Lu wa = He 34d ce : Ke ey xv ctkep a) u(r We t¥Ato wy = cao hence Geo oh Cleyna) ta z Gcp theorem ques a integer ¢ 1 dy suce Phat bac, there entae wo Takegers bere cey = ged (e.c) we Aeropemombra Hon of Goo theorm by an thample | Lee b= bl QZ caua From «SEER S wae TASB ETE ze HUW HS gab ELE} \ov a from srep 2 We Yet t= ug — (Ce ea) £8 qubeet aking for BA bre Shep y we get ao (ert np fen 8 * 3] tet Lug = RRS he [oor th a urehal corollary of TRE GID Haw corollary TL bee are velakively prtene , rhen Hheve enrtk integers LEY such That ba LAC*Y =] ty cory pico qrorhy we often need fo Compute youl eplicaktVE enverrer modulo a prime Nombey . —» The {ovenal proceduye Eo obtain the taveue of c Modulo b ih called “ Ettended Euclidean Algorithm" here woe amame tho bee ave Telobtvely prtmegarended Euclidean Atgorithm compute Inverse Cb, C) | | old t= newl =o ! old &=0 pewd = | : bo ab Cro ye write COTY L qe z — [| compube quobient— . Vos ve bl fc! LL compute nematadey empl = oldt — new! ey aid = RED pewl = Hemp keenp & = old d- new de LY oldd = HERR newd = Remga Looe) b= oc {[ update dividend x‘ VL update divisor th ae aha Pointe newt ¥ & + newd czy 5 Yekurn new xX1 | QD compute pyvere of 1a Module FJ ustay Extended | | euclidean — Atgori’thm. (c beduto b ) gol: peta CF bh = | newt joid& [newa | To vertant i Kon! bY Cc" Jy ford eae + ita |e | newt X b+ NewWAKC — sqita.- | at 5 t _ =1 , | \ | , wo# jt | =} leat COE ED | \ \ L Uv) edt EKRULMES a iti\s \a & + a 8 et ag Layer tia x 1dag 4 a y-1g 133 jesxtr 433xid= | \ | | sel ON mew Te a3 ta Nodule +4 SS rovese oh ——— wade algebraic CETUCEL HA qrenes A group Gq, comeHtnes denoked by AG #Y the see of elemenks with pinay pperabion denoked by yRo= quacciakes FO each, osdered Puy oe tn an etementE Caxb? in G Such that be fotecstra, ation art obeyed .Le] Closure» a oO 4 a and b belong ko | then ab th algo mn AsSociative: a@¥(b*C) = x 3 (b*C) @xby4c for att arbie thy There fA On etemene € FN | such thot ee Tatenkt ey Element * er Each o tn freve iA on element Element * a! en g suc Trvers ¢ h Hat atat=ataze tommy Ea RAVE axb= bea for all a.b iy. | finvee Numbey 4h ekements Eh Th ao re has @ neberted Ee * gente poup! and the order oh the qrorr th equal Eo the Number oh elements mn the your pipewike — the greek ts an Topotee group * . el Finke qrout tK the Set of fo le — —_ net} with the operatren W addition Module n ® where 9 ih O ave fnbegey ree see of Mot _nety th denokedt by Za and ih denoked by th | Ww ad don Modulo ol operat toy Te th cay HD verify, thot (tn, tny fA aw Group. | The Tdenki ky elenven te of TREK roup eA QO and the Tavern t oh an element ob is -b.| Bangle © ter, HY Te TOP onty ih fa a. prtme, a denoker muti pUcabon Medulon | | hold IM Such a Seuctwe I Que does each 4 ee ean) wumbe ys were accocia ety ity tdenbrey element ~ | piso o th rhe | ele ment have an tnvere 2 oe cA premre, then by corollary t, fee na sn In, &F con gind qocee ger’ cand d such thet be caned=l go b¥Ce Li met n) pen Ce i pie? mod ns | > a mon-prime, Hee & be ont al TEA non-Rere factors - supgore + Kar an tavere . soy h. guh = LtK#N | SO gehet mod n ox tdtng Hvroughot & by F- | etemenEA 29 Tn have no inven | pot @ 4 Troup ‘bh nig Wow div | pence Come | nana gies Aor, wy ck | non -pryime : we conclude thot t%n Poona | ek Nth prime . greet wy | | Woke ora thptne cet e pl freegers modulo 1 | tat ave xelatively pitine Eo 0 : | ram ple 8 i \ Ps oe 2 t ‘ and Le Hdusy Tie Can Shou) ~*~ 4 mn tee AZ AY eh ce group. |i ee een ene Sc evaneeee eeeeee meee | The ovder o A qroep , {Way Te the Numbes | Elemente FO Q- 5 | he Euler Toktent function — alenkod by Don), #6 the! | order of AR in so, | dts) =Y — order at Ne of etements Yo y | gly = & | tA gubgrowe ay AQ,%4 a ® 5 Th AG *y cata hits the ick: propereres enumerated | eostter & 4! in a Subse of G. | gromple © ae ie Leds de uy, The different Senet * edey Ls -_ Race ronda enh epi ain (ist y axe + 4 gadition £0 <%,,5 ) *n Fheorem Log range & sd vides the the ordty | ant Sw bgVOUPS oh a yrour as orades hy tre porent qyour - bellk that: tere are COMEYaInEA on, theorem TRtb RE numbey | given are a 5 Poet cance ccna oo 7 ; order -3. TER 3 Yours of elemenEK 79 od Seub groups aH aw | sen oxdey cA nO Sub-group have © op oan ose enamel | grders Le and Le ee «4, *} pe a binite grove and E gee we We ko denote fie | an Element aN q- 1